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Main Catalogs   Accounting Business Communication Business Law Economics Finance Insurance and Real Estate Management Information Systems Management and Organization Marketing Operations and Decision Sciences      Special Catalogs     Case Studies Text Chapters Mapped to Specific Cases How to Build a Book: Select Content Review & Arrange Personalize Request a Copy Keyword    Title, Author, Case #, Etc. ALEKS Homework Manager Discover Econ   Learning Solutions Group     Harvard Business Review Articles — International Business  • To include an item in your complimentary custom book, click the item’s Add link. If there is a View link next to an item, you can view the pages by clicking on the link.  • To review the list of items you have selected so far, click on Step 2 in the progress bar above. You have successfully added all of the items to your order. Either click here to review your order or continue to add content from another title.    1992: Moves Americans Must Make   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Magee, John F. Europe is determined to achieve economic unity and to compete on at least equal terms with America and Asia. American companies should plan now to meet heavier competition from Europe and to exploit the new European market. U.S.-based multinationals need pan-European strategies. Improved transport, reduction of regulatory barriers, and new alliances make local focus dangerous. Companies exporting to Europe have two concerns: strengthened European competition and increased European protectionism. HBS Number: 89310 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1989 Subjects: Competition; Europe; International business; International trade    1992: Moves Europeans are Making   Add   View  6 pp.  Article Friberg, Eric G. The best European managers are preparing for the essential challenges of European unification: 1) reduce overcapacity; 2) build scale; 3) recognize international competition; and 4) work to homogenize local tastes. HBS Number: 89305 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1989 Subjects: Competition; Europe; International business; International trade    Alternative Dispute Resolution: Why It Doesn’t Work and Why It Does   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Carver, Todd B.; Vondra, Albert A. In the 1980s, experts and executives alike heralded alternative dispute resolution (ADR) as a sensible, cost-effective way to keep corporations out of court and away from the kind of litigation that devastates winners almost as much as losers. But the great hopes for ADR faded quickly. What characterizes ineffective ADR? An emphasis on winning at any price, a lack of commitment to ADR on the part of both top-level management and company counsel, and the misconception that ADR is not really that different from litigation. But some companies are using ADR effectively--lowering costs, resolving disputes rapidly, and preserving business relationships. Few companies have made the commitment to ADR more effectively than NCR. In addition to boosting the commitment of top management to ADR, NCR has defined a number of goals to be pursued in the event of disputes. HBS Number: 94301 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1994 Subjects: Conflict; Legal aspects of business Year New: 1994    America: Don’t Take "No" for an Answer   Add   View  8 pp.  Article MacEachron, David Two recent books frame the current dangerous state of the U.S.-Japan relationship. The Enigma of Japanese Power, Karel van Wolferen's acidic analysis of the whole of Japanese society, concludes that no one is really in charge and the country is incapable of change. The Japan That Can Say "No" by Sony's Akio Morita and right-wing politician Shintaro Ishihara, argues that the United States must change its practices and, in a harsher tone, that Japan should play power politics with the United States by flirting with the Soviet Union. The two books are symptomatic of Japan's new arrogance and the new U.S. uncertainty. HBS Number: 90207 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1990 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; Economic policy; International business; International trade; Japan; Social change    America’s Not-So-Troubling Debts and Deficits   Add   View  7 pp.  Article Robinson, Marshall A look at the various parts of the $9 trillion debt mosaic underlying the U.S. economy reveals no cause for alarm. After all, our 200-year-old economy has been built with well-managed debt. While there are instances where the debt was poorly managed, the Federal Reserve and the president have many instruments - tax measures, credit regulation, subsidies, and bailouts - to manage the economy sensibly. Moreover, debt today is 42% of GNP - well within historic bounds when compared with 1939 when debt was 53% and after World War II when it was 110%. And while foreigners hold some 19% of U.S. securities, they are unlikely to dump them. The United States remains one of the world's best places to invest. HBS Number: 89412 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1989 Subjects: Debt management; Economic policy; Foreign investment; Government & business    Asia’s New Competitive Game   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Williamson, Peter J. These days, a Western company's toughest competition in Asia is likely to come not from familiar rivals but from lesser-known Asian companies based in countries other than Japan. These companies often use unusual tactics and strategies HBS Number: 97512 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1997 Subjects: Competition; International business; Southeast Asia; Strategy formulation Year New: 1997    Behind Japan’s Success   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Drucker, Peter F. To many business people and public officials in the West, the postwar success of the Japanese economy is both an impressive and a puzzling achievement. The success is obvious and measurable; the reasons for it, far less so. Seeking exp HBS Number: 81103 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1981 Subjects: Government & business; Government policy; Japan; McKinsey Award Winners    Better Way to Crack China   Add   View  4 pp.  Article Vanhonacker, Wilfried R. Traditionally, complex business structures in the Chinese market have kept foreign companies out. Now, with Kodak leading the way, corporate structures from the West are gaining acceptance and are providing a way for China to let foreign companies in through the back door. HBS Number: F00404 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/2000 Subjects: China; Emerging markets; International business; International trade    Blueprint for Financial Reconstruction   Add   View  15 pp.  Article Bryan, Lowell L. The natural franchise of banks is to provide a safe deposit for savers and to protect the payments system. Banks can only do this with government insurance. But government insurance, like any safety net, creates market distortions. To minimize them Washington should isolate government-insured banking from all other financial services. Noninsured banks should be free to compete and innovate, so long as they raise capital from the market and do not rely on safety nets. HBS Number: 91304 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1991 Subjects: Banking; Deregulation; Economic policy; Government & business; Insurance; Legislation; Regulated industries    Boundaries of Business: Commentaries from the Experts, Part 1   Add   View  14 pp.  Article Kanter, Rosabeth Moss Four experts comment on the results of the Harvard Business Review 1990 World Leadership Survey. Topics explored include: the perils of protectionism; the human resource deficit; management in developing countries; and challenging organizational structure. HBS Number: 91404 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1991 Subjects: Developing countries; Foreign policy; Human resources management; International business; International trade; Organizational structure; Polls & surveys; Social change    Boundaries of Business: Commentaries from the Experts, Part 2   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Hampden-Turner, Charles; Peters, Thomas J.; Jaikumar, Jay Three experts comment on the results of the HBR World Leadership Survey. Charles Hampden-Turner explains how the methodology of the survey reflects distinctly American presuppositions and perspectives. Tom Peters comments on the rhetoric of partnerships. The rhetoric, Peter claims, is that we are moving toward a seamless global economy where 'borderless' companies work with an array of partners. He suggests that the HBR survey results tell a different story. Finally, Jay Jaikumar points out how technology has revolutionized the work of managers and brought on the many management shifts uncovered by the HBR survey. HBS Number: 91502 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1991 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; International business; Partnerships; Polls & surveys; Technological change    British Privatization - Taking Capitalization to the People   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Moore, John In its successful efforts to sell state-owned industries during the 1980s, the Thatcher government in the United Kingdom learned that privatization is not only an end in itself but can also transform public attitudes toward ownership. Privatization produces improved performance and, among politicians, a greater focus on government's role as a regulator, rather than owner, of industry. But in the course of privatizing, conflicts arise that governments must work hard to overcome. HBS Number: 92107 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1992 Subjects: Capital markets; Government & business; Government policy; Privatization; Public sector; Stock offerings; United Kingdom Year New: 1992    Building Competitive Advantage Through a Global Network of Capabilities   Add   View  26 pp.  Article Author(s): Bartmess, Andrew D.; Cerny, Keith Publication Date: 01/01/1993 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review Product Description: Facility location decisions made by many U.S. manufacturers during the past decade yielded disappointing results. These decisions were typically tactical, stop-gap actions that have resulted, at best, in short-lived benefits. Many firms moved manufacturing overseas to obtain a factor cost advantage, only to find that the cost advantage was fleeting, and that the distances the move introduced between manufacturing and other key groups (e.g., customers, suppliers, development, and sales) had constrained their ability to compete. This article explores the impact that facility location has on the critical capabilities that define a company's ability to compete. It discusses the shortcomings of the ``tradition'' approach to facility location, which ignores the internal workings of the company, and outlines a new capability-centered approach that creates sustainable benefits by fostering the development and growth of the unique set of critical capabilities required by a company's strategy, customers, and competitive environment. HBS Number: CMR040 Subjects: Competition; International business; International operations; Organizational structure Academic Discipline: Business & government    Business and International Environmental Treaties: Ozone Depletion and Climate   Add   View  19 pp.  Article Author(s): Levy, David L. Publication Date: 04/01/1997 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review Product Description: The study of business interests adds an important dimension to our understanding of the development of international environmental agreements. The contrasting role of business interests in the cases of ozone depletion and climate change is critical to explaining why climate change is a much more difficult issue for the international community to tackle. In the case of ozone depletion, industry concentration and the technological factors provided incentives for industry leaders to invest in alternative products and processes. By contrast, fossil fuel substitutes present a long-term strategic threat to the major sectors that produce and use these fuels. Where relatively few actors were involved in ozone depletion, it will be much more difficult to craft an agreement that is acceptable to the broad range of industries affected by climate change. However, business does have substantial influence over the timing and shape of international environmental agreements, even when there is considerable disunity within the business ranks. HBS Number: CMR081 Subjects: Business government relations; Environmental protection; International trade; Public policy Academic Discipline: Business & government    Business and the Changing Society   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Author(s): Lodge, George C. Publication Date: 03/01/1974 Product Type: Harvard Business Review Article Product Description: Individualism, private property, a weak central government — all the traditional notions in which this nation has so long believed seem to be assuming the status of discarded totems. What we really believe today, as measured from what we are actually doing, does not jibe with these time-honored notions; in many cases, our actions are diametrically opposed to our party line. And because we seem to be charging off in so many different directions at once, it is hard to get any kind of clear picture of the purposes and priorities of our society. The author has done his best to disabuse himself of dead issues and to open his eyes to what is happening to our goals and ideals. Here he adjures the rest of us to do the same. Unless every one of us tries to see his or her problems clearly, relying no more on the old notions of “right” but trying to assess what is going to be “right” in the future, we shall by default hand ourselves over to the chances of nondirection and chaos. HBS Number: 74206 Subjects: McKinsey Award winners; Planning; Social change; Uncertainty Academic Discipline: Business & government    Can American Management Concepts Work in Russia?: A Cross-Cultural Comparative   Add   View  25 pp.  Article Author(s): Elenkov, Detelin S. Publication Date: 07/01/1998 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review Product Description: This articles examines the main cultural differences and similarities between American managers and their Russian counterparts. It also explores the applicability of familiar American management concepts concerning leadership styles, motivation approaches, performance appraisal systems for strategic planning, and organizational configurations in the context of the Russian culture. Certain American management concepts--such as legitimate power-based leadership style, employee relations policies, gainsharing, appraisals based on work team performance, strategic improvising, and strategic alliances--can be successfully put into practice in Russia. Differences in managerial values between these two countries, however, require that the application of American management approaches in Russia be carried out patiently and systematically. HBS Number: CMR129 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; Eastern Europe; Management styles; Managerial behavior Academic Discipline: Business & government    Can Business Really Do Business with Government?   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Goldsmith, Stephen Indianapolis, Indiana, has been a leader in the trend toward efficiency in government. Since 1992, when Stephen Goldsmith became mayor, the city has opened up more than 70 services to competitive bidding. It has reduced its operating budget, lowered taxes twice, and cut its non-public-safety workforce. It has also increased the public-safety budget, invested millions to rebuild the city's infrastructure, and increased budget reserves. According to Goldsmith, the business community has been slow to grasp the significance of government's move toward increased efficiency. There are many opportunities for businesses to help municipal governments lower costs and increase revenues. He offers seven guidelines to help pioneering companies succeed in what could be their next big market. HBS Number: 97303 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1997 Subjects: Government & business; Local government; Market entry; Political process; Privatization; Social enterprise    Can the U.S. Negotiate for Trade Equality?   Add   View  6 pp.  Article Vernon, Raymond As Europe moves closer to economic union and the new GATT negotiations proceed, U.S. managers are perplexed. While the European Community suppresses barriers favoring national producers, it is likely to adopt measures favoring European over non-European corporations. The U.S. negotiating posture may be handicapped partly by Congress's uncertainty about issues such as free trade. The U.S. government should press for impartial international institutions capable of arbitrating disputes. HBS Number: 89313 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1989 Subjects: Competition; Economic policy; Europe; International business; International trade    Can the World Survive the Triumph of Capitalism?   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Garten, Jeffrey E. Free-market philosophy has triumphed in almost every corner of the globe since the end of the Cold War, creating pockets of prosperity from Shanghai to St. Petersburgh. But who controls the world economy? Can it be controlled? And what are the consequences of running global capitalism on automatic pilot? Such questions, which ought to be hotly debated by political and corporate leaders (but rarely are), are at the core of William Grieder's new book, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism. In his review, Jeffrey Garten, former U.S. undersecretary of commerce and currently dean of the Yale School of Management, expresses a few reservations about Greider's solutions, but hails One World, Ready or Not as "one of the most stimulating and important books of the decade." HBS Number: 97102 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1997 Subjects: Developing countries; Economic development; Foreign investment; Government & business; International business; International trade; Public policy Year New: 1997    Capital Disadvantage: America’s Failing Capital Investment System   Add   View  20 pp.  Article Porter, Michael E. The U.S. system of allocating investment capital is failing, putting American companies at a serious disadvantage and threatening the long-term growth of the nation's economy. The problem involves the external capital allocation system HBS Number: 92508 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1992 Subjects: Capital expenditures; Capital investments; Capital structure; Competition; International business; Investment management Year New: 1992    Capitalism in Japan: Cartels and Keiretsu   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Cutts, Robert L. Japan is organized in a fundamentally different way from the economies of the rest of the industrialized world. It is a nation girded by cartels and bound by keiretsu, or families of interrelated businesses, which would seem alien and even illegal in the United States. Pure cartels have great power over Japan's markets. Even political parties operate like cartels. U.S. businesses cannot merely wait for the Japanese to accept fair trade policies as determined by governments of the West. They must be alert for opportunities to join keiretsu, use U.S. political muscle, and exploit any openings in Japan's closely knit business network. HBS Number: 92403 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1992 Subjects: Business & society; Business conditions; Competition; International business; Japan Year New: 1992    Capitalism with a Safety Net?   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Levinson, Marc Newsweek economics writer Marc Levinson reviews Lester C. Thurow's book The Future of Capitalism: How Today's Economic Forces Shape Tomorrow's World and takes the author to task for once again using a U.S. presidential election as the occasion for making dire economic predictions. But although he thinks Thurow's gloom is unwarranted, he credits him with asking the right question: How do you confront the widening inequality of incomes and opportunities that intense competition brings? Thurow has adapted the theory of punctuated equilibrium in evolutionary biology to describe how a relatively stable economic environment can be disrupted overnight by a chaotic transformation. He points to today's global shift from the age of mass production to the age of brainpower and warns that, as the resulting gap between rich and poor widens, frustration will tax the resilience of democracy. HBS Number: 96504 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1996 Subjects: Business & society; Economic policy; Government & business; Layoffs; National competitiveness; Public policy; Social change Year New: 1996    Case of the Tangled Transfer Price   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Barrett, M. Edgar The case involving Universal Data Corp. illustrates transfer pricing methods employed by many companies to maximize profits. The European subsidiary of Universal Data Corp. engages in "creative transfer pricing" when it ships computer hardware from the United States and Europe to Brussels at different prices for the same machine. This procedure can cause problems with local custom authorities and create hostility toward the MNC in the host country. Four executives discuss the major issues involved in transfer pricing: 1) profit maximization versus profit satisfaction; 2) centralization versus decentralization of the subsidiary; 3) one set of books for the company versus multiple sets; and 4) the letter of the law versus its intent. HBS Number: 77301 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1977 Subjects: HBR Case Discussions; International business; Legal aspects of business; Multinational corporations; Pricing; Profit centers; Transfer pricing    Challenge of Going Green   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Editors Responding to environmental problems has always been a no-win proposition for managers, report Noah Walley and Bard Whitehead in "It's Not Easy Being Green" (May-June 1994). Help the environment and hurt your own business, or irreparab HBS Number: 94410 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1994 Subjects: Corporate responsibility; Environmental protection; Pollution control Year New: 1994    Changing Patterns of International Competition   Add   View  32 pp.  Article Porter, Michael E. What does international competition mean for competitive strategy? While there is ample literature on the problems of becoming a multinational, the specific strategic needs of established multinationals require closer examination in light of the increasingly competitive international environment. We need to distinguish between multidomestic industries and global industries. If American firms are to catch up with the Japanese, they must strive to achieve global platforms rather than engage in competition on a country-by-country basis. A global strategy requires that a firm rebalance the configuration and coordination of its activities so that comparative as well as competitive advantage is achieved. The increasing globalization of international competition requires strategic responses that overcome country parochialism. HBS Number: CMR011 Type: CMR Article Publication Date: 1/1/1986 Subjects: Competition; Competitive decision making; International business Publisher: California Management Review    China Trade: Making the Deal   Add   View  7 pp.  Article Pye, Lucian W. In approaching the prospect of a joint venture in the People's Republic of China, foreign executives often plunge ahead with insufficient attention to the strategy of deal making. They waiver in their purposes and seem vague or noncommittal. When such weaknesses come up against the subtle strength that the Chinese bring to the art of negotiating, they become stumbling blocks to the development of effective and profitable commercial relationships. A better understanding of Chinese culture and practices will lead to a better deal. HBS Number: 86410 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1986 Subjects: China; Cross cultural relations; International business; International trade; Joint ventures    China Trade: Making the Deal Work   Add   View  6 pp.  Article Hendryx, Steven R. Foreign managers of joint ventures in China routinely complain of an array of practical problems in dealing with their Chinese partners. Some stem from bad luck, insufficient commitment by foreign companies, and China's continuing economic problems. But others result from misunderstandings, with each side assuming venture management will be based on its own way of doing things. While foreign managers cannot turn a Chinese company into its Western capitalist counterpart, they can take it in the direction of a more autonomous and profit-minded organization. HBS Number: 86404 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1986 Subjects: China; Foreign investment; International business; Joint ventures; Multinational corporations    China’s Grasp and Hong Kong‘s Golden Eggs   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Rafferty, Kevin Hong Kong and China have become economic Siamese twins. Hong Kong capitalists have contributed about two-thirds of the new investment in China during the past decade. Now Hong Kong feels like the goose who will be throttled for laying golden eggs. The colony will be handed back to China in 1997. Chinese officials are already moving in, pressing their connections to the regime in Beijing to gain advantages for Chinese enterprises. The result has been an enormous exodus from the colony. HBS Number: 91310 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1991 Subjects: China; Foreign policy; International business; International trade; Political risk    Citicorp Faces the World: An Interview with John Reed   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Reed, James John S. Reed, chairman and CEO of Citicorp, has a clear ambition: to create the world's first truly global financial institution. Citicorp's scale may make it the only U.S. bank with the potential to do this. Still, its precarious balance sheet constrains flexibility and growth. Reed proposes a radical restructuring of international banking: "Imagine a scenario in which 10 or 12 international banks, much like the 5 or 6 giant oil companies, share the capital and risk associated with different parts of the business." HBS Number: 90606 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1990 Subjects: International banking; International business; Restructuring    Competing with Giants: Survival Strategies for Local Companies in Emerging Marke   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Dawar, Niraj; Frost, Tony The arrival of a multinational corporation often looks like a death sentence to local companies in an emerging market. After all, how can they compete in the face of the vast financial and technological resources, the seasoned manageme HBS Number: 99203 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1999 Subjects: Competition; Developing countries; Emerging markets; Globalization; India; International business; Market analysis; Market segmentation; Mexico; Strategic market planning Year New: 1999    Competitive Advantage of the Inner City   Add   View  20 pp.  Article Porter, Michael E. The economic distress of America's inner cities may be the most pressing issue facing the nation. The lack of businesses and jobs in disadvantaged urban areas fuels not only a crushing cycle of poverty but also crippling social problem HBS Number: 95310 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1995 Subjects: Competition; Economic policy; Entrepreneurship; Government policy; Location of industry; Public policy; Social enterprise; Urban development Year New: 1995    Competitiveness: 23 Leaders Speak Out   Add   View  18 pp.  Article Editors Twenty-three leaders from Asia, Europe, and the United States discuss whether they believe the United States is still competitive in the world market. They include presidential candidates, CEOs and chairmen of large multinationals, owners of small businesses, labor leaders, and economists. All of them agree that the United States has a competitiveness problem. However, they do not agree on its cause or its solution. HBS Number: 87412 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1987 Subjects: Competition; Economic policy; International business; International trade; National competitiveness    Competitiveness: Self-Help for a Worsening Problem   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Scott, Bruce R. A country's competitiveness is a matter not of sales but of incomes - earned, not borrowed. To be competitive means to raise incomes as rapidly as competitors do and to make the investments necessary to keep up in the future. From this perspective, U.S. competitiveness is eroding, despite the dramatic recovery of exports and sharp profit and employment increases in the Rust Belt. The United states must make three changes in its economic strategy to improve its standing in world markets: 1) promote investment and exports, not consumption, as the engine of economic growth; 2) shift management focus from short-term financial calculations to a long-term commitment to building market share; 3) replace its implicit, shortsighted, cost-based policy with one that is explicit, opportunity oriented, and industry led. HBS Number: 89414 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1989 Subjects: Competition; Economic policy; Exports; International trade; National competitiveness    Computers and the Coming of the U.S. Keiretsu   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Ferguson, Charles H. U.S. and European information technology companies face a choice: cooperate or become design and marketing arms of their Japanese competitors. As digital technology ushers in an era of inexpensive personal systems built from standard, mass-produced components, industries are converging to form a huge information technology sector. Companies able to manufacture components are gaining ground. This trend plays to the strengths of the Japanese; embedded in industrial combines known as keiretsu, they invest in technology and manufacturing, command the supply chain, and coordinate strategy to block foreign competition and penetrate world markets. McKinsey Award Winner. HBS Number: 90405 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1990 Subjects: Competition; Computer industry; Information systems; Information technology; International trade; Japan; Manufacturing strategy; McKinsey Award Winners; Supply chain    Cooperate to Compete Globally   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Perlmutter, Howard V.; Heenan, David A. Global strategic partnerships (GSPs) are a new way of doing business. These partnerships exploit world markets and technical expertise simultaneously. U.S. antitrust attitudes as well as traditional American business strategy can be obstacles to GSPs. A successful GSP has: a dual sense of mission, a cooperative strategy, egalitarian governance, a common culture, and a single organizational structure. Because GSPs are the way of the future, U.S. executives need to make fundamental changes in the ways they think about business. HBS Number: 86209 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1986 Subjects: International business; International trade; Multinational corporations; Organizational structure; Partnerships    Country Is Not a Company   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Krugman, Paul Should politicians turn to business leaders for advice in formulating economic policy? Not according to economist Paul Krugman, who argues that executives' advice is often disastrously misguided. Business leaders who have been promoted to economic advisers are no more likely to be great economists than are military experts. People who have mastered the complexities of running a multibillion-dollar enterprise may think they can make pronouncements whenever the subject is money, but before they can offer sound economic advice, they must master a new vocabulary and a new set of concepts. In short, they must go back to school. HBS Number: 96108 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1996 Subjects: Economic analysis; Macroeconomics Year New: 1996    Democracy Is Inevitable   Add   View  11 pp.  Article Slater, Philip; Bennis, Warren G. In a 1964 article reprinted as an HBR Classic, the authors argue that democracy is inevitable--both in the workplace and the world. As the most "efficient" social system in times of chronic change, only democracy can accommodate the anticipated upheaval of technological innovation. In separate commentaries, the authors look at their article in light of recent political events and business trends. HBS Number: 90510 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1990 Subjects: Government & business; HBR Classics; Politics; Social change; Technological change    Demystifying Japanese Management Practices   Add   View  7 pp.  Article Yang, Charles Y. Many Japanese managers are concerned that traditional methods such as consensus management, the ringi decision-making system, seniority promotions, lifetime employment, and Japanese-style long-range planning will inhibit their companies' ability to adapt to rapid technological change and global competition. Three examples of Japanese companies illustrate some common problems with traditional Japanese management methods. HBS Number: 84617 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1984 Subjects: International business; Japan; Management styles    Designer Organization: Italy’s GFT Goes Global   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Howard, Robert For Italy's Gruppo GFT, being a global company is not about increased standardization; it's about a quantum increase in complexity. The more the company penetrates global markets, the more it has to respond to myriad local differences among those markets. Achieving this flexibility requires turning the organization inside out. GFT has had to reinvent the entire way it does business--how it defines customers, how it develops and manufactures products, and how it handles marketing and distribution. HBS Number: 91505 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1991 Subjects: Clothing; Decentralization; International business; International marketing; Italy; Organizational change    Development, Democracy, and the Village Telephone   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Pitroda, Sam Conventional thinking about Third-World development rejects the idea of state-of-the-art technology for villages that lack adequate water, power, food, and literacy. But the author argues that modern telecommunications and electronic information systems are completely appropriate technologies even for the poorest regions of the world. Why? First, telecom is indispensable in mobilizing the resources necessary to meet basic human needs. Second, information technology is the greatest democratizer the world has ever seen. HBS Number: 93611 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1993 Subjects: Developing countries; Economic development; India; Social change; Telecommunications Year New: 1993    Does a Currency Union Boost International Trade?   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Rose, Andrew K. This article explores the impact of currency unions--the decision by two or more nations to adopt the same currency--on international trade. It demonstrates that even after all other relevant factors are held constant, currency unions have a significant impact on trade: countries that share the same currency trade with each other three times as much as with countries with different currencies. This analysis suggests that the impact of the single European currency on trade--and thus competition--within Europe will be much more substantial than many observers have predicted. HBS Number: CMR166 Type: CMR Article Publication Date: 1/1/2000 Subjects: Competition; Currency; EC single market; Eurodollars; Europe; International trade Year New: 2000 Publisher: California Management Review    Does America Need a Technology Policy?   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Branscomb, Lewis M. For 40 years, U.S. government policies have emphasized increasing the supply of new technologies, mainly through the funding of defense-related R&D. Proponents of technology policy now argue that government support for new "critical technologies" is absolutely essential. However, another alternative exists. The government could stimulate demand for innovative ideas across the industrial spectrum by encouraging collaborative research, investing in technological infrastructure, and helping companies improve their capacity to adapt innovations to specific business needs. In today's global economy, what matters is not necessarily knowing how to create new technologies, but knowing how to apply innovations quickly. HBS Number: 92201 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1992 Subjects: Government policy; High technology products; Innovation; R&D; Technology Year New: 1992    Does Privatization Serve the Public Interest?   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Goodman, John B.; Loveman, Gary This article moves the privatization debate from the ideological ground of private versus public to the more pragmatic ground of managerial behavior and accountability. Viewed in this context, the pros and cons of privatization can be measured against the standards of good management--regardless of ownership. The lessons from the wave of corporate takeovers in the late 1980s are directly applicable to the debate over privatization: managerial accountability to the public's interest matters more than the form of ownership. HBS Number: 91607 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1991 Subjects: Government & business; Local government; Managerial behavior; Privatization; Public administration; Public sector    Does Third World Growth Hurt First World Prosperity?   Added   View  12 pp.  Article Krugman, Paul In this article, Stanford economist Paul Krugman argues that fears about the impact of Third World competition are questionable in theory and flatly rejected by the data. After examining the consequences of isolated productivity improvements in three increasingly realistic economic models, Krugman concludes that an increase in Third World labor productivity means an increase in world output. And an increase in world output shows up in higher wages for Third World workers, not in decreased living standards for the First World. Yet if the West responds to the widespread fears about Third World economic success by erecting import barriers, the effects could be disastrous--dashing any hope of a decent living standard for hundreds of millions of people throughout the developing world. HBS Number: 94406 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1994 Subjects: Developing countries; Economic development; Macroeconomics Year New: 1994    Don’t Give Up on Russia   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Kvint, Vladimir U.S. companies in Russia should invest early and move as fast as they can. Despite economic hardship the climate for international joint ventures in Russia has never been better. The country offers a cheap and highly educated workforce HBS Number: 94205 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1994 Subjects: Country analysis; Foreign investment; International business; International finance; Joint ventures; Russia Year New: 1994    Electric Utilities: The Argument for Radical Deregulation   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Navarro, Peter The electric utility market is in upheavel. Deregulation and a wave of megamergers are sweeping the industry. With states proceeding in piecemeal fashion however, it is unclear what final form deregulation will take. In his article, Peter Navarro, an expert on utility regulation at the University of California, Irvine, argues that removing most regulation and opening up the electricity market to free competition would improve U.S. competitiveness. He contends that the state-by-state approach to deregulation will create more turmoil than a rapid, federally coordinated restructuring. HBS Number: 96110 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1996 Subjects: Deregulation; Electric power; Government policy; National competitiveness; Regulated industries Year New: 1996    Electric Utility Deregulation Sparks Controversy   Add   View  12 pp.  Article In recent years, major industries in the United States have been deregulated--for example, telecommunications, airlines, and banking--and now the winds of change are blowing through the electric utility industry. But the experts do not HBS Number: 96307 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1996 Subjects: Deregulation; Electric power; Government policy; National competitiveness; Regulated industries Year New: 1996    End of Lifetime Employment in Japan   Add   View  6 pp.  Article Hirakubo, Nakato Lifetime employment is one of the most controversial and distinctive aspects of Japanese management. But in the Risutora (restructuring) triggered by Asia's economic downturn in the late 1990s, two million or more jobs must be cut, dri HBS Number: BH039 Type: Business Horizons Article Publication Date: 11/15/1999 Subjects: Asia; Country analysis; Employment security; International business; Japan; Labor market; Unemployment Year New: 2000 Publisher: Business Horizons/Indiana University    Entering China: An Unconventional Approach   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Vanhonacker, Wilfried Conventional wisdom has it that the best way to do business in China is through an equity joint venture (EJV) with a well-connected Chinese partner. But pioneering companies are starting a trend toward a new way to enter that market: a HBS Number: 97210 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1997 Subjects: China; Foreign investment; International operations; Politics    Environmental Product Differentiation: Implications for Corporate Strategy   Add   View  32 pp.  Article Author(s): Reinhardt, Forest Publication Date: 07/01/1998 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review Product Description: Political demands for environmental improvement create obligations for managers that can conflict with shareholder value creation. While differentiating products along environmental lines is a conceptually straightforward way of reconciling these apparently conflicting demands, not all attempts to do so have succeeded. This article describes three requirements for successful environmental product differentiation: 1) firms must discover or create a willingness in consumers to pay for public goods; 2) they must overcome barriers to the dissemination of credible information about the environmental attributes of their products; and 3) they must defend themselves against imitation. More broadly, environmental strategy must be integrated with the overall strategy of the business. The appropriate environmental strategy depends, like the business's overall strategy, on the fundamental economics of the industry and the business's internal capabilities--basic constraints that have often been obscured in the academic debate about business and the environment. HBS Number: CMR125 Subjects: Corporate strategy; Environmental protection; Environmental regulations; Green marketing; Product differentiation Academic Discipline: Business & government    European Platform for Global Competition: An Interview with VW’s Carl H. Hahn   Add   View  11 pp.  Article Hahn, Carl H. In this interview, Volkswagen management board chairman Carl Hahn describes the German automaker's ambitious program of expansion. With the acquisition of the Spanish automaker Set in 1986 and Czechoslovakia's Skoda in 1990, Hahn is building a "federated" company--at a cost of some $35 billion. Its autonomous divisions are more flexible than the old, centralized Volkswagen. The new divisions respond to regional tastes and take advantage of low-wage manufacturing regions. Says Hahn, "What works in Europe will equip us to reach beyond it." HBS Number: 91408 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1991 Subjects: Automobiles; Competition; Corporate strategy; Decentralization; Germany; International business; International operations; Organizational change    Fast Heat: How Korea Won the Microwave War   Add   View  11 pp.  Article Magaziner, Ira C.; Patinkin, Mark The microwave oven was invented in the United States 40 years ago, but it is a Korean company that now produces the most ovens. Samsung's story is told in this article adapted from The Silent War: the Global Battles Shaping America's Future, and it's a lesson on how companies in developing countries are becoming world-class competitors. Dedicated people, company policy that encourages investment in minds as well as technology, and timely opportunity all helped Samsung's rise. HBS Number: 89114 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1989 Subjects: Competition; Korea; Strategic planning    Feudal World of Japanese Manufacturing   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Sakai, Kuniyasu Small and midsize companies make up 99% of Japanese industry, and are the real foundation of the Japanese economy. The high-quality goods that come bearing a famous maker's name are seldom the product of that company's factory -- in fact, small companies usually designed, assembled, packaged, and shipped it. These subcontractors are like serfs in a highly structured feudal system. The big companies are the daimyo -- feudal overlords who control the fates of their subjects. HBS Number: 90609 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1990 Subjects: Industry structure; International business; Japan; Organizational structure    Fixing Japan’s White-Collar Economy: A Personal View   Add   View  20 pp.  Article Hori, Shintaro The 1990s are difficult times for many of Japan's business leaders. They are realizing that the bursting of the bubble economy and the lingering recession of 1993 are not just temporary setbacks but urgent alarms about the country's lo HBS Number: 93605 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1993 Subjects: Japan; Management performance; Productivity; Restructuring Year New: 1993    Folly of Free Trade   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Culbertson, John M. Our blind allegiance to free trade threatens our national standard of living and economic future. Free trade puts us in direct competition with low-wage nations - countries that have a lower standard of living than the United States. By allowing these nations to take over big sectors of our market, we permit the permanent interruption of the relationship between demand and supply that has been the main force behind economic growth in U.S. history. HBS Number: 86505 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1986 Subjects: Economic policy; Foreign exchange; Foreign exchange rates; Foreign policy; International trade    Foreign Corrupt Practices Act   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Baruch, Hurd The record-keeping, internal controls, and antibribery provisions of the Act provide the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) increased leverage to investigate and prosecute directly the various illegal activities of its registered companies. Enforcement and penalties incurred by violation include injuction by a federal court, imprisonment, fines and a special penalty of one million dollars maximum fine for foreign bribery prohibited by the act. HBS Number: 79101 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1979 Subjects: Bribery; Economic policy; Financial reporting; International business; Legal aspects of business; Legislation    Foreign Ownership: When Hosts Change the Rules   Added   View  9 pp.  Article Encarnation, Dennis J.; Vachani, Sushil In an effort to retain more corporate earnings, exercise more managerial control, and meet demands of local constituents, governments worldwide are seeking greater domestic ownership of foreign subsidiaries within their borders. A study of corporate responses to India's Foreign Exchange Regulation Act of 1973 (FERA) shows that multinational corporations facing forced equity dilutions have at least four strategic options available: strict compliance, exit, negotiation, and preemptive action. Certain practical considerations limit management's strategic options: the implications of setting a precedent, the corporation's decision-making structure, the level of bargaining power, the political climate, and management's own biases. HBS Number: 85507 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1985 Subjects: Foreign investment; International business; International operations; Multinational corporations    From Complacency to Competitiveness: An Interview with Vitro’s Ernesto Martens   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Martens, Ernesto; Nichols, Nancy A. Companies searching for a way to navigate the changes in Mexico would do well to study Vitro, Sociedad Anonima, an 84-year-old Mexican company with roughly $3 billion in sales and 44,000 employees. CEO Ernesto Martens-Rebolledo is tran HBS Number: 93507 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1993 Subjects: Corporate culture; Corporate strategy; Developing countries; Glass & glassware industry; International trade; Interviews; Management of change; Mexico Year New: 1993    Global Finance and the Retreat to Managed Trade   Add   View  14 pp.  Article Hale, David D. The competitiveness debate that today focuses on America's industrial performance will soon confront the same kind of market erosion in banking and brokerage. The likely outcome is fiscal and political gridlock, leading the U.S. to ignore its traditional commitment to free trade and embrace a global financial system based on "managed trade" - an ad hoc, results-oriented process that uses targeted protection, corporate self-restraint, and moral persuasion by the Federal Reserve and Japan's Ministry of Finance to set new political rules for financial competition. HBS Number: 90106 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1990 Subjects: Competition; Economic policy; International banking; International trade; Japan; National competitiveness    Global Work Force 2000: The Globalization of Labor   Add   View  14 pp.  Article Johnston, William B. A growing imbalance between the world's labor supply and demand is driving the globalization of labor. While the developed world accounts for most of the world's gross domestic product, its share of the world work force is shrinking. Meanwhile, in the developing countries, the size and educational level of the work force is quickly rising. Developing nations that combine their young, educated workers with investor-friendly policies, and industrial countries that keep barriers to immigration low, will benefit from the new global work force. HBS Number: 91204 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1991 Subjects: Demographics; Developing countries; Human resources management; Statistical analysis; Work force management    Globalization of Europe: An Interview with Wisse Dekker   Add   View  6 pp.  Article Dekker, Wisse; Stone, Nan As "1992" approaches, Europeans must compete in world markets or see their businesses fail. Wisse Dekker looks at the forces that have led Europeans to realize that it is companies, not countries, which must compete. He foresees widespread industry shakeouts and heightened competition for all companies. Dekker does not envision a European "fortress" closed to Japanese and U.S. companies, but believes that reciprocity should be the guiding principle in trade negotiations and that value added and the transfer of technology should be paramount in evaluating investments. HBS Number: 89303 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1989 Subjects: Competition; Europe; International business; International trade; Interviews    Globalizing the Rest of the World   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Belli, Pedro Although they account for 20% of the world's population and a major share of its natural resources, Latin America and Africa have been left out of the move to globalize trade and markets. Now, because of declining protectionism, these countries are ready to take an active role in world trade. By using the emerging Pacific Rim economies as a model, many of the less-developed countries ar e liberalizing their trade policies and privatizing their industries to create wealth. HBS Number: 91402 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1991 Subjects: Africa; Central America; Developing countries; Foreign policy; International business; International trade; South America    Go Global — Or No?   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Kuemmerle, Walter HBS Number: HR0106A Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 6/1/2001 Subjects: Business reading; Expansion; Global business; Globalization; HBR Case Discussions; Information technology; International business; International operations; Organizational change; Software; Software industry    Going Global: Lessons from Late Movers   Added   View  12 pp.  Article Bartlett, Christopher A.; Ghoshal, Sumantra Conventional wisdom says that companies from the periphery of the global market can't compete against established global giants from Europe, Japan, and the United States. Companies from developing countries have entered the game too la HBS Number: R00201 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/2000 Subjects: Developing countries; Emerging markets; Globalization; International business; Multinational corporations Year New: 2000    Gorbachev, Turnaround CEO   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Goldman, Marshall I. Mikhail Gorbachev has set himself the most daunting management challenge ever. As CEO of Soviet Union, Inc., he inherited declining industries characterized by waste, poor quality, secrecy, and misallocation of resources. At the heart of Gorbachev's turnaround effort is an ambitious market-oriented reform package. Some advice to Gorbachev: halfway measures will not do. His reform measures should rely even more on market incentives, so as to quickly bolster the consumer economy. Unless consumer goods improve in quality and become more readily available, Soviet workers will have little reason to work harder and put up with the insecurities and strictures of market competition. HBS Number: 88306 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1988 Subjects: Leadership; Management of change; Organizational development; Public administration; USSR    Green and Competitive: Ending the Stalemate   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Porter, Michael E.; Van Der Linde, Claas The lingering belief that environmental regulations erode competitiveness has resulted in a stalemate. One side pushes for tougher standards, the other tries to roll standards back. The authors' research shows that tougher environmental standards actually can enhance competitiveness by pushing companies to use resources more productively. Managers must start to recognize environmental improvement as an economic and competitive opportunity, not as an annoying cost or an inevitable threat. Environmental progress demands that companies innovate to raise resource productivity--precisely the new challenge of global competition. It is time to build on the underlying economic logic that links the environment, resource productivity, innovation, and competitiveness. HBS Number: 95507 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1995 Subjects: Competition; Environmental protection; Innovation; National competitiveness; Pollution control; Productivity; Regulation; Social enterprise Year New: 1995    Guided Free Enterprise in Japan   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Vogel, Ezra F. Japanese business success stems from a complex web of relationships among business, government, and quasi-government organizations. Government, guiding rather than regulating free enterprise, has encouraged modernization, accelerated market forces, and reduced disruptions caused by the decline of industries. The United States must understand the mechanisms of Japanese success in order to make the organizational changes required to create a more conducive climate for free enterprise. HBS Number: 78311 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1978 Subjects: Government & business; International business; International trade; Japan    He Who Pays the Piper   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Fisher, Roger In a letter to outside counsel, a hypothetical CEO comments that although corporate lawsuits are expensive, time consuming, and often counterproductive, business people and lawyers alike assume that litigating rather than settling is the normal way to deal with disputes. To alter this pattern, the CEO proposes that executives and lawyers recast their assumptions, treating prompt settlement of disputes as a primary goal and litigation as a last resort, and viewing lawyers, not as warriors, but as cost-conscious mediators. A cooperative effort by business people and lawyers, the CEO concludes, best ensures a reasonable and cost-effective approach to resolving disputes. HBS Number: 85204 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1985 Subjects: Conflict; Legal aspects of business; Legal services    Hollow Ring of the Productivity Revival   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Roach, Stephen S. The U.S. economy has been on the upswing for more than four years. Inflation is low, corporate profits are up, and the stock market has risen beyond anyone's dreams. Such changes are the by-product of the wrenching restructuring underg HBS Number: 96609 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1996 Subjects: Business & society; Capital investments; Economic analysis; Economic policy; Layoffs; Productivity; Restructuring; Technological change Year New: 1996    How "National Security" Hurts National Competitiveness   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Kuttner, Robert Because of the elaborate system of U.S. national security export controls, the United States is losing vast trade opportunities in Eastern Europe and the developing world. With the Cold War's end and the diffusion of technical prowess among U.S. allies, the United States needs to rethink its traditional trade and technology policies, which now undermine both military and economic security. HBS Number: 91107 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1991 Subjects: Eastern Europe; Exports; Foreign policy; Government policy; High technology products; International trade; Military R&D; National competitiveness    How an Industry Builds Political Advantage   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Yoffie, David B. If government policies are important to an industry's competitive future, then political activism deserves as much executive time and energy as other business priorities. The challenge is to create and sustain political advantage - to develop a stable, ongoing relationship that makes Washington an ally in the battle for global competitiveness. The political effectiveness of the semiconductor industry during the past five years shows what it takes to succeed, even with limited political assets. HBS Number: 88314 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1988 Subjects: Competition; Corporate strategy; Government & business; National competitiveness; Political process; Politics; Semiconductors    How Do Economies Grow?   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Scott, Bruce R. With the failure of foreign aid and similar development projects, many analysts are saying that poor countries should just free up their economies and let markets do the work. The Heritage Foundation's 1997 Index of Economic Freedom ex HBS Number: 97309 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1997 Subjects: Developing countries; Economic development; Economic planning; Government policy; International trade; National competitiveness Year New: 1997    How Europe’s Companies Reposition to Recycle   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Cairncross, Frances Despite the growing power of the European Community, representatives in Brussels have been unable to come up with unifying recycling regulations. Each nation is pursuing its own direction, and the ultimate responsibility has fallen to the companies of Europe. These companies are putting aside their individual competitive impulses to create new, cooperative relationships. Their plans go far beyond everything attempted in the United States, including the capacity to recycle virtually anything that is manufactured, from cars to computers. Beyond recycling, European companies are looking at an even more environmentally sound solution: minimizing waste so as little as possible enters the system in the first place. HBS Number: 92202 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1992 Subjects: EC single market; Environmental protection; Europe; International trade; Pollution; Pollution control; Recycling; Waste disposal Year New: 1992    How Fast Can the U.S. Economy Grow?   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Krugman, Paul Can the U.S. economy grow much faster than the two-point-something percent it has in recent years? Standard economic analysis suggests that it cannot. But many influential business leaders and journalists--and even a few economists--ha HBS Number: 97406 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1997 Subjects: Economic indicators; Economic policy; Growth management; Inflation; Macroeconomics; Monetary policy; Productivity; Public policy    How I Turned a Critical Public into Useful Consultants   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Johnson, Peter T. When Peter Johnson became the administrator of Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) in Portland, Oregon, he realized that BPA had to listen to its harshest critics--the people affected by the agency's decisions. When Johnson arrived in 1981, BPA was reviled for its approach to decision making--the agency first made decisions and then explained them. Despite the warnings of attorneys, and his own apprehensions, Johnson opened up BPA's decision making to the public. The first attempts to involve BPA's critics were filled with confrontation, but success soon followed. Early experiences proved to Johnson that involving the public in BPA's decision making was a practical alternative to litigation. Former adversaries became BPA's partners in making better decisions, and the agency gained authority and legitimacy. HBS Number: 93103 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1993 Subjects: Communication strategy; Electric power; Public opinion; Public utilities; Service management; State government Year New: 1993    How MNCs Cope with Host Government Intervention   Added   View  11 pp.  Article Doz, Yves L.; Prahalad, C.K. The efforts of host governments to maintain control over their own national economies have restricted the freedom of multinational company (MNC) managers in deploying economic resources. Regulation interferes with product/market choice, use of technology, level of employment, and national trade balance. Compromise is an alternative to the choices of adaptation to or withdrawal from a national market. HBS Number: 80204 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1980 Subjects: International business; International operations; Multinational corporations    How One Polish Shipyard Became a Market Competitor   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Johnson, Simon; Loveman, Gary; Kotchen, David T. A financial crisis at Poland's Szczecin shipyard in 1990 led to the appointment of aggressive reformer Krzysztof Piotriwski as manager. Piotrowski and his team undertook both financial and operations restructuring, focusing their efforts on midsize container ships. In 1993, the shipyard was doing well enough for Piotrowski and the four unions to meet with the minister of privatization about privatizing the yard. Despite the shipyard's remarkable progress, Piotrowski's team knows it cannot rest on its laurels. Productivity still lags behind Korea and Japan, and China and Brazil compete on wages. Piotrowski's experience, however, highlights what managers must accomplish if restructured enterprises are to have a hope of long-term competitiveness. HBS Number: 95605 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1995 Subjects: Eastern Europe; Economic development; International business; Privatization; Production planning; Shipbuilding Year New: 1995    How to Make a Global Joint Venture Work   Add   View  7 pp.  Article Killing, J. Peter Joint ventures are common methods of managing projects that involve different countries. Managers need to consider whether a shared management or dominant parent approach works best for a specific enterprise. Thirty-seven experiences point up the difficulties of working with more than one parent. Dominant parent ventures, those managed by one company like wholly-owned subsidiaries, are more successful than shared management ventures, where both companies contribute functional personnel. Problems often arise in shared situations because managers of international ventures have communication problems and different attitudes regarding: time, the importance of job performance, material wealth, and the desirability of change. HBS Number: 82310 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1982 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; International business; Joint ventures; Multinational corporations; Partnerships    How to Negotiate in Japan   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Van Zandt, Howard F. Negotiating with the Japanese involves many cultural complications which executives may profitably overcome through study and sensitivity. Japanese negotiations involve predictable steps and actions: establishing good personal relations, making a presentation, testing sincerity through style of approach, overcoming opposition or crises, drawing up the contract and closing the discussions. Americans may refine their philosophy of individualism by understanding the selfless Japanese emphasis on the harmony of the whole. HBS Number: 70613 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1970 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; International business; International trade; Japan; Negotiations    Ideals for Export   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Malik, Charles H. Western countries need to make the values of freedom understandable and real to newly independent countries--we need to go beyond telling them about successful material techniques. Marxist thought has swept across Asia and Africa, and will be countered only with Westerners who have faith in the deeper ideas about morality that have brought about Western civilization. HBS Number: 64109 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1964 Subjects: Business & society; Developing countries; McKinsey Award Winners; Political systems    Impact of U.S. Lobbying Practice on the European Business-Government Relatio   Add   View  19 pp.  Article Author(s): Coen, David Publication Date: 07/01/1999 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review Product Description: The gradual transfer of regulatory functions from national states to those of the European Union together with the establishment of the single market have all contributed to the Europeanization of the business lobby. Yet few could have envisaged the rapidity with which firms have developed their political skills and subtlety, let alone the important role they would play in Europe. This article explores how the large firm has come to play such a prominent role in EU public policy making and compares and contrasts European development with the American experience. HBS Number: CMR155 Subjects: EC single market; Europe; Lobbying; Public policy Academic Discipline: Business & government    Industrial Policy: It Can’t Happen Here   Add   View  11 pp.  Article Badaracco, Joseph L., Jr.; Yoffie, David B. The most serious obstacle to implementing an industrial policy is interest-group and partisan politics. Government efforts to shift resources among industries would stimulate all affected parties to full-scale mobilization. The insurmountable problems involved in creating an industrial policy institution would be those of staffing, ensuring genuine political autonomy from congressional budget and other controls, and proving the existence of a crisis justifying such radical action. HBS Number: 83601 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1983 Subjects: Economic policy; Government & business; International business; Political risk    Inside Unilever: The Evolving Transnational Company   Add   View  7 pp.  Article Maljers, Floris A. Unilever, the Dutch-British company with operations in some 75 countries, is often described as one of the foremost transnationals. The company's fast-moving product portfolio of consumer goods requires proximity to local markets, alth HBS Number: 92506 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1992 Subjects: Consumer goods; Food; International business; International marketing; International operations; Multinational corporations Year New: 1992    Integrated Strategy: Market and Non-Market Components   Add   View  21 pp.  Article Baron, David P. A business strategy must be congruent with the capabilities of a firm as well as both its market and nonmarket environments. The market environment includes those interactions between the firm and other parties that are intermediated by markets or private agreements. The nonmarket environment includes those interactions that are intermediated by public institutions. A business strategy must integrate both market and nonmarket components. HBS Number: CMR105 Type: CMR Article Publication Date: 1/1/1995 Subjects: Business government relations; Corporate strategy; Marketing strategy; Public policy; Strategic market planning; Strategy formulation Year New: 1998 Publisher: California Management Review    Integrated Strategy: Trade Policy, and Global Competition   Add   View  26 pp.  Article Author(s): Baron, David P. Publication Date: 01/01/1997 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review Product Description: An integrated strategy captures the synergies between competitive strategies that seek superior performance in the marketplace and nonmarket strategies that shape the competitive environment. This article extends the conceptual and analytical foundations of integrated strategy to a competitive environment structured by international trade policy. The framework is illustrated by the international trade dispute between the Eastman Kodak Co. and Fuji Photo Film Co. regarding access to the Japanese market for consumer film and photographic paper. The analysis focuses on the synergies between market and nonmarket strategies in which governments act as agents of their companies. The framework incorporates competition between the two companies in their market environment, competition in the nonmarket environment to influence their government's bargaining position, and bargaining between the governments. HBS Number: CMR078 Subjects: Business government relations; Corporate strategy; Economic infrastructure; International trade; Public policy Academic Discipline: Business & government    Is America in Decline?   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Prowse, Michael America, a nation once celebrated for its irrepressible optimism, now appears to be obsessed by "declinism"--the idea that something is fundamentally wrong with the U.S. economy, and until it is fixed, America will neither compete effectively in global markets nor provide an adequate standard of living for its citizens. The real challenge facing American society is not reversing economic decline; it is addressing the social implications of the new economy--in particular, how to reinvent America's double commitment to economic opportunity and social equality. Ironically, too great a preoccupation with decline may keep American society from getting on with the job. HBS Number: 92410 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1992 Subjects: Business & society; Business conditions; Economic policy; Social change Year New: 1992    Is American Business Working for the Poor?   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Bane, Mary Jo; Ellwood, David T. Poverty is a business issue because the American poor are part of the American work force. Most poor adults and 90% of poor children live in families where work is the norm, not the exception. Companies cannot create the work force of the future with the poverty policies of the past. There are some simple policy mechanisms, however, that can help the working poor without putting an undue burden on business. Enacting them requires managers to see poverty policy as part of a national human-resource strategy that links corporate strategy to a broad social agenda. HBS Number: 91501 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1991 Subjects: Business policy; Corporate responsibility; Economic policy; Ethics; Human resources management; Work force management    Is Foreign Infrastructure Investment Still Risky?   Added   View  12 pp.  Article Wells, Louis T., Jr.; Gleason, Eric S. Private investment in infrastructure is again the rage among foreign investors and governments in the developing countries of Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Managers should not get carried away, however: A look at a few recent experi HBS Number: 95511 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1995 Subjects: Developing countries; Foreign investment; Government & business; International finance; Liability; Risk management Year New: 1995    Is Germany a Model for Managers?   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Wever, Kirsten S.; Allen, Christopher S. Most American managers have a hard time making sense of Germany. It has a fraction of the resources and less than one-third the population of the United States. Labor costs are higher, paid vacations are at least three times as long, a HBS Number: 92509 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1992 Subjects: Business & society; Country analysis; Germany; International business; Labor relations Year New: 1992    Is the Deficit a Friendly Giant After All?   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Eisner, Robert Most people strongly oppose deficits, but that's because most people don't understand them, writes Robert Eisner in "Sense and Nonsense About Budget Deficits" (HBR, May-June 1993, Reprint #93303). Deficits can be good as well as bad, he argues, too small as well as too large. The right kind of deficit can generate purchasing power for U.S. products and also enhance total productivity. Historically, in fact, deficits have been associated with greater national saving. In this follow up, eight experts consider Eisner's views and debate the merits of his argument. HBS Number: 93401 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1993 Subjects: Debt management; Economic policy; Federal government; Macroeconomics; Unemployment Year New: 1993    Israel’s Future: Brainpower, High Tech - and Peace   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Avishai, Bernard Israel faces an imperative to grow in the 1990s. This year, Israel welcomed 200,000 Russian immigrants (a number that will double in the coming year). How can this small country cope with its surging population? Israel has one big advantage: brainpower. It boasts the world's highest literacy rate, math skills, and number of scientists and technicians per capita. With market exposure and foreign partners, Israel could do well in world markets. The most important first step, however, is for the government to pursue peace. HBS Number: 91601 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1991 Subjects: Employee training; International business; Middle East    It’s Not Easy Being Green   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Walley, Noah; Whitehead, Bradley Responding to environmental problems has always been a no-win proposition for managers. Help the environment and hurt your own business, or irreparably harm your business while damaging the earth. Recently, however, a new common wisdom has emerged that promises the ultimate reconciliation of environmental and economic concerns. The proponents of this new popular wisdom cite a mounting body of "win-win" projects that benefit the environment and create financial value. In this new world, managers might redesign a product so that it uses fewer environmentally harmful or resource-depleting raw materials--an effort that if successful could result in considerable cuts in direct manufacturing costs and inventory savings. This new vision sounds good, yet it is highly unrealistic. HBS Number: 94310 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1994 Subjects: Corporate strategy; Environmental protection; Pollution control; Social enterprise Year New: 1994    It’s Time to Make Peace with Iran   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Askari, Hossein The United States probably has worse relations with Iran than with any other country in the world. Though there has been reason for distrust, Iran has more long-term potential as a trading partner and economic and political ally than any other country in the Middle East save Israel. Moreover, making peace is up to the United States. For all their bellicose statements, Iranian leaders have shown many signs of a willingness to compromise and reestablish a relationship. Iran rates high in overall stability, economic potential, and the prospects for compatibility. Unlike most of its neighbors, Iran has settled its internal struggles and reemerged with functional republican institutions. HBS Number: 94101 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1994 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; International business; International trade; Middle East Year New: 1994    Japan & the USA: Wrangling Toward Reciprocity   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Nukazawa, Kazuo The economic strength and leadership of the United States rests on its ability to assimilate foreign products, people, and ideas. Japan's resistance to outside influence is a source of cultural isolation and international economic conflict. But Japan is taking steps to increase domestic demand, introduce market forces into Japanese agriculture, end protectionism, and increase its role in international bodies and assistance efforts. And while the American economy is healthy, competitive, and dynamic, the United States preaches, litigates, acts unilaterally, gives advice it would never take, and undermines excellent institutions like the International Trade Commission. Despite sporadic bickering and annoyance, an integrated world community will grow from the openhearted give-and-take of Japan-U.S. relations. HBS Number: 88310 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1988 Subjects: Economic policy; International business; International marketing; International trade    Joint Ventures in Russia: Put the Locals in Charge   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Lawrence, Paul R.; Vlachoutsicos, Charalambos Contrary to reports of failure, dozens of joint ventures between Russia and the West are prospering. There are obstacles to investing in Russia, but successful joint ventures turn them into growth opportunities. Interviews with the Russian heads of 33 Western-Russia joint ventures revealed three keys to doing business in Russia. First, many joint ventures seek out local managers from the highly skilled Russian workforce and put them in charge. Second, successful joint ventures sell the finest goods and services they can produce. Finally, seemingly intractable problems can often be turned into excuses for expansion. The combination of perennial shortages, pent-up demand, and prodigious resources presents a unique business opportunity for Westerners. HBS Number: 93104 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1993 Subjects: International business; Joint ventures; Partnerships; Russia Year New: 1993    Joint Ventures with Japan Give Away Our Future   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Reich, Robert B.; Mankin, Eric Joint venture agreements between U.S. and Japanese companies in high-technology industries seemingly make good business sense for both countries. Yet these agreements pose a threat to America's industrial competitiveness. Today's big competitive gains come from learning about manufacturing processes. At the heart of a growing number of U.S.-Japanese joint ventures is the agreement that the Japanese will undertake complex production. As a result, Japanese workers produce a steady stream of new products and the overall skill level of the population goes up. Government should create incentives for companies doing business in the United States to invest in complex production, using American workers and engineers. HBS Number: 86210 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1986 Subjects: Competition; Corporate strategy; High technology products; International operations; Japan; Joint ventures; National competitiveness    Joint Ventures: Saving the Soviets from Perestroika   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Hertzfeld, Jeffrey M. The McDonald's joint venture in Moscow has evolved from the only direct investment strategy in the Soviet Union that will work for Western companies in the next ten years. The two pillars of this strategy are daringly simple. The first is growth, the second is vertical integration. The Soviets have a chance of avoiding economic disaster if many joint ventures engender a new generation of managers and technologists who will lead the Soviet economy into the next century. HBS Number: 91105 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1991 Subjects: Foreign investment; International business; International trade; Joint ventures; USSR    Knee-Deep and Rising: America’s Recycling Crisis   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Lodge, George C.; Rayport, Jeffrey F. Every year, Americans generate 180 million tons of solid waste, 70% of which goes into landfills. Since 1979, the United States has exhausted more than two-thirds of its landfills; another one-fifth will close over the next five years. Solving the problem will require a new understanding between industry and government--an understanding that combines industry competence and government authority. At the moment, the two sides seem mired in an unfortunate combination of good intentions and failed systems. A classic example that epitomizes the problem is the recycling of plastics. HBS Number: 91507 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1991 Subjects: Environmental protection; Government & business; Legislation; Packaging; Plastics; Pollution control; Recycling; Waste disposal    Last Gasp of GATTism   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Prestowitz, Clyde V. Jr.; Tonelson, Alan; Jerome, Robert W. The failure of the Uruguay Round of GATT talks should be an opportunity for the United States to change its tactics and approach to GATT. Since the Tokyo Round, the United States has been sacrificing its manufacturing sector in order to continue the talks. The United States was able to carry the burden of GATT in the past. But its strength has been transferred to Europe and Japan -- and they are unwilling to sacrifice national economic interests for the abstract virtue of "fairness." A new strategy is needed to help U.S. manufacturing regain prominence in the world marketplace. HBS Number: 91205 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1991 Subjects: Foreign policy; Government agencies; Government policy; International business; International trade    Lessons from Germany’s Midsize Giants   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Simon, Hermann Germany's small and midsize companies, known as the Mittelstand, are a hidden source of wisdom on global competition. Companies like Krones, Korber/Hauni, Weinig, Webasto, and TetraWerke dominate their markets with world market shares ranging from 70-90%. When combined, they account for the bulk of Germany's trade surplus. The success of the Mittelstand lies in a set of five common practices. These companies all: 1) combine a narrow product-market focus with broad geographic scope; 2) perform best in the areas customers care most about; 3) balance closeness to customers with deep technical knowledge; 4) rely on themselves, especially for R&D; and 5) foster close ties between managers and workers. HBS Number: 92208 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1992 Subjects: Competition; Germany; International business; International marketing Year New: 1992

Let’s Stop Eating Our Seed Corn   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Revsine, Lawrence An evaluation of the two concepts of physical capital-maintenance and dollar capital-maintenance indicates that current cost income based on physical capital-maintenance is the more relevant yardstick for national policy decisions. While the dollar capital-maintenance approach leads to decreased productive capability, the physical capital-maintenance approach considers preservation of productive capacity to be of the utmost importance. HBS Number: 81108 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1981 Subjects: Economic policy; Inflation; Inflation accounting; Tax accounting; Taxation    Letter from Japan   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Ohmae, Kenichi No industrialized nation can be an economic island, yet Japan continues to behave like one. When foreign goods and services--such as food, airline tickets, and postal service--are priced much lower than those provided in Japan, the gov HBS Number: 95308 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1995 Subjects: Consumer behavior; Government policy; International business; Japan; Regulation; Social change; Technological change Year New: 1995    Local Memoirs of a Global Manager   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Das, Gurcharan "Think global, act local" goes the saying. But Gurcharan Das, who helped build Vicks Vaporub into what is now one of Procter & Gamble's most successful Indian brands, believes that "think local" is at least equally good advice. The key to all business success, he argues, is local passion. The most successful global brands, Das argues, are those that make best use of the rich experience their geographical diversity gives them. Business truths are invariably local in origin, but they are often expressions of fundamental human needs that are the same worldwide. Flexible, open-minded managers can take local insights with a universal character and make them global. HBS Number: 93202 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1993 Subjects: Brands; Consumer marketing; Country analysis; Developing countries; Diversity; India; International marketing; Pharmaceuticals Year New: 1993    Localizing in the Global Village: Local Firms Competing in Global Markets   Add   View  21 pp.  Article Author(s): Ger, Guliz Publication Date: 07/01/1999 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review HBS Number: CMR156 Subjects: Globalization; International marketing; Product differentiation; Product positioning Academic Discipline: Business & government Product Description: Local firms can compete with transnational firms if their actions are firmly based in the local culture, and if they move from local strengths while being equipped with an in-depth understanding of global production and consumption dynamics. Three domains where local firms can offer alternatives to standard global products are products grounded in local culture, information goods, and products for similar local conditions and the poor worldwide. Local firms must develop an innovative perspective, a global and local vision, self-crafted rather than transferred and imitated marketing skills and practices, partnerships and alliances, and a supportive political environment. Such firms can successfully travel on their alternative road within the global arena.    Logic of Global Business: An Interview with ABB’s Percy Barnevik   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Barnevik, Percy Percy Barnevik, president and CEO of ABB Asea Brown Boveri, is moving more aggressively than any CEO in Europe, perhaps in the world, to build the new model of competitive enterprise: an organization that combines global scale and world-class technology with deep roots in local markets. He offers a detailed guide to the theory and practice of building a "multidomestic" enterprise. He describes ABB's matrix system and a new breed of global managers. HBS Number: 91201 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1991 Subjects: Electronics; Globalization; International business; Matrix organization; Multinational corporations; Organizational structure    Managing Government, Governing Management   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Mintzberg, Henry The collapse of communism has led many in the West to declare that capitalism has triumphed. But Henry Mintzberg, professor of management at McGill University and INSEAD, says that this idea is overly simplistic. He argues further that the push for government to become more like business ignores both the value of the alternative forms of ownership we have in the West--including cooperative and nonprofit organizations--and the purpose of balance in our societies. A business model for managing government would treat its constituents as customers in an arm's-length trading relationship. But we are not merely customers of our government; we are also subjects (who have obligations), citizens (who have rights), and clients (who have complex needs). Thus we need a wide range of management models for providing public services. HBS Number: 96306 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1996 Subjects: Business & society; Government & business; Privatization; Public administration; Social enterprise Year New: 1996    Managing in a Borderless World   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Ohmae, Kenichi In today's borderless economy managers must see and think globally. Increasingly, managers and consumers all over the world speak a common language, and people everywhere can see what choices and preferences are in other countries. Companies must learn to become insiders in each market of the Triad--North America, Europe, and Japan. A headquarters mentality often prevents this; managers want to apply a home-country solution to a foreign situation or intervene in the management of the foreign market. This is reinforced by entrenched systems, structures, and behaviors. The key is to develop an equidistant view of all customers. HBS Number: 89312 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1989 Subjects: Corporate strategy; International business    Managing in the Euro Zone   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Carr, Nicholas G. On January 1, 1999, 11 European nations formally adopted the euro as a common currency. What will the new monetary union mean for managers? In this Perspectives piece, senior executives from Merloni Elettrodomestici, PricewaterhouseCoo HBS Number: 99111 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1999 Subjects: Currency; EC single market; Eurodollars; Europe; Foreign exchange rates; Marketing strategy; Strategic market planning; Strategy formulation Year New: 1999    Managing Our Way to Economic Decline   Add   View  13 pp.  Article Hayes, Robert H.; Abernathy, William J. The responsibility for the current economic malaise rests primarily with the failure of U.S. managers to keep their companies technologically competitive. Their short-term principles predispose managers toward imitative versus innovative product design, backward integration versus striking out in innovative directions, and appropriation of technology through purchase rather than in-house equipment design and development. Renewed excellence requires informed leaders who can take the long view, and financial controls with a longer-term emphasis. McKinsey Award Winner. HBS Number: 80405 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1980 Subjects: Competition; International business; McKinsey Award Winners; Technological change; Technology    Managing Risks in Mexico   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Hecht, Laurence; Morici, Peter The authors warn that any company considering a move to Mexico must manage both the old risks of a developing country and the new uncertainties of an open market. Since the 1960s, U.S. companies have operated "maquiladoras," factories near the border that use Mexican labor to assemble products for export. As trade barriers come down, these factories will compete for the first time with the most successful Mexican companies, and other fierce competitors. Hiring local managers and finding local partners have helped some companies manage the inevitable risks. But depending on a company's size and core business, the risks of doing business in Mexico may outweigh the benefits. HBS Number: 93403 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1993 Subjects: Country analysis; Developing countries; International operations; International trade; Mexico Year New: 1993    Managing the Merger: A Strategy for the New Germany   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Henzler, Herbert A. Joyful at the outset, the unification has become a process of painful realization. What Germany lacks is a concept for merging east and west: the corporate merger, while not perfect, could provide some useful instruction. This national merger is a chance for Germany to pursue creative solutions to tough problems. By focusing on four areas in particular--people, infrastructure, regional centers, and the environment--eastern Germany can be brought up to and even surpass standards in western Germany, as well as spur economic growth and forge new industries in the process. HBS Number: 92103 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1992 Subjects: Environmental protection; Germany; International business; Political risk; Social change; Unemployment Year New: 1992    Mexico - Opening Ahead of Eastern Europe   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Sanderson, Susan Walsh; Hayes, Robert H. Instead of looking toward Eastern Europe for new integrated economic regions, U.S. companies should be looking at Mexico. Unlike Eastern Europeans, Mexican workers have a genuine understanding of the routines of market capitalism. Since 1988, foreign companies have invested some $8 billion in the country. Other draws include a reduction of per capita foreign debt, a stabilized peso, and a reduction of annual inflation from 160% to 20%. HBS Number: 90509 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1990 Subjects: Foreign investment; International business; International finance; Mexico    Micro Capitalism: Eastern Europe’s Computer Future   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Dyson, Esther Throughout Central Europe and the Soviet Union, computer entrepreneurs are emerging from the shells of state organizations to begin the process of building a market economy. In the United States, the players we now consider prosperous giants grew up in the industry. This will be the case in the East as well. Western companies willing to take risks on the new entrepreneurs, rather than sticking with state organizations, will be winners in the long run. HBS Number: 91102 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1991 Subjects: Computer industry; Eastern Europe; Europe; Foreign investment; International business; Joint ventures; USSR    Mythology, Markets, and the Emerging Europe   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Hilton, Andrew The rhetoric of European unification is still powerful for many Americans and Europeans who want to believe in the European superstate of 1992. However, as recent events show, much of the mythology of Europe is indeed a myth. Nationalism in Western Europe is still alive, and few European companies have gone beyond the rhetoric of a single market. The course of European integration will be, at best, messy and riddled with reverses. Across Europe, overambitious financial institutions, for instance, are retreating into domestic markets after costly cross-border mistakes. Europe is and will remain a mosaic of national markets; the reality is that the odds in Europe will be stacked against the outsider. The lesson for U.S. managers is to be careful before falling for the myth of a unified Europe. HBS Number: 92605 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1992 Subjects: EC single market; Europe; Foreign investment; International banking; International business; International finance Year New: 1992    National Security and Our Technology Edge   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Ramo, Simon In the 1950s, government created the market for high-technology production through defense spending. Products and processes of technology were highly secret and spin-off for consumer products was limited. Now the government is focusing on the technology of strategic defense - research which also benefits the consumer economy. At the same time, the line between civilian and military technology is blurring. HBS Number: 89609 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1989 Subjects: Competition; Government & business; Technology    Navigating China’s Changing Economy: Strategies for Private Firms   Add   View  11 pp.  Article Ahlstrom, David; Bruton, Garry D.; Lui, Steven S.Y. Despite China's rapid economic growth and the role private firms have played in it, many such companies have experienced numerous problems. At the root of many of these problems is the lack of well-established ground rules for commerce HBS Number: BH046 Type: Business Horizons Article Publication Date: 1/15/2000 Subjects: China; Foreign investment; Government & business; Political process Year New: 2000 Publisher: Business Horizons/Indiana University    Negotiating with Third World Governments   Added   View  8 pp.  Article Wells, Louis T., Jr. Poor communication can cause the breakdown of negotiations with foreign governments, and the multinational manager who deals with developing countries often needs guidelines. Negotiators must understand local economic and political problems. Negotiators should avoid self-praise, ensure equal safeguards for the foreign government and consider a variety of investment arrangement structures. Negotiators may not adequately represent their government or company and negotiating styles may vary due to cultural differences. HBS Number: 77112 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1977 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; Developing countries; Foreign investment; International business; Multinational corporations    New Atlantic Century   Add   View  4 pp.  Article Simon, Hermann; Otte, Max Despite the rapid growth of Asian businesses, the center of the world economy in the next century will continue to be North America and Europe. HBS Number: F00104 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/2000 Subjects: International relations; International trade; Macroeconomics; World economy    New Economy Is Stronger Than You Think   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Sahlman, William A. Many policy makers at the Fed contend that the new economy is a fragile bubble--and that with the "irrational exuberance" of the capital markets, the sky is going to fall on the U.S. economy. That couldn't be further from the truth, ac HBS Number: 99612 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1999 Subjects: Economic policy; Government & business; Interest rates; New economy Year New: 1999    New Economy’s Troubling Trade Gap   Add   View  4 pp.  Article Fingleton, Eamonn Information industries are at the core of the celebrated new economy; they may also be at the core of a sharp deterioration in the U.S. trade position. HBS Number: F99603 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1999 Subjects: Balance of payments; Balance of trade; Information industry; National competitiveness; New economy    New Era of Eurocapitalism   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Henzler, Herbert A. Europe's capitalist system may be better suited to meet the demands of a global economy than its American or Japanese counterparts. In the years ahead, every country must face the challenge of incorporating diverse groups under one roof and improving the quality of life for all. Here Europe's history gives its managers a decided advantage. Because their national markets are small, European companies have long been internationally oriented. And unlike their peers in the United States or Japan, European managers are accustomed to working within the bounds of an implicit social compact. A new generation of "Europreneurs," such as Edzard Reuter of Daimler-Benz and Percy Barnevik of ABB, has appeared to meet the challenges of emerging global markets. HBS Number: 92404 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1992 Subjects: EC single market; Europe; Government & business; International business Year New: 1992    Opening the Doors for Business in China   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Garten, Jeffrey E. China is an alluring market for multinational companies, but those based in the United States have suffered from the foreign-policy demands that their government has imposed on relations with this emerging giant. The author, a former u HBS Number: 98307 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1998 Subjects: Business reading; China; Foreign investment; Foreign policy; Government & business; International relations; International trade Year New: 1998    Organizing for Worldwide Effectiveness: The Transnational Solution   Added   View  21 pp.  Article Author(s): Bartlett, Christopher A.; Ghoshal, Sumantra Publication Date: 10/01/1988 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review HBS Number: CMR019 Subjects: International business; International operations; Organization; Organizational design; Organizational management Academic Discipline: Business & government Product Description: To be competitive in an increasingly complex international environment, companies with worldwide operations must achieve global coordination and national flexibility simultaneously. Traditional organizational forms, however, have tended to provide one or the other attribute. The authors illustrate this point through the experience of two major competitors in consumer electronics: Philips, a classic “multinational ” company whose decentralized federation structure is well-suited to facilitating national flexibility, and Matsushita, a “global ” company with a centralized hub configuration that provides it with great efficiency. The authors then describe an emerging model — the “transnational ” organization whose structure is based on an integrated network of worldwide operations. The transnational firm requires both effective corporate management that does not impede national flexibility and efficient country management that does not prevent global coordination.    Partnering for Competitiveness: The Role of Japanese Business   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Morita, Akio Sony's chairman addresses the present deterioration of U.S.-Japan relations and offers his view of how the two countries can patch up their differences and work as partners toward mutual economic success. He argues that the mistrust and fear embodied in "bashers" and protectionists on both sides are holding back a relationship of historic importance. Morita suggests that by moving more manufacturing operations to the United States, Japan can make meaningful contributions to revitalizing the U.S. economy. Japanese capital added to American technology can create new competitive companies that are beneficial to both sides. HBS Number: 92307 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1992 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; International trade; Japan; Joint ventures; National competitiveness; Partnerships Year New: 1992    Patent Protection or Piracy - A CEO Views Japan   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Spero, Donald M. Donald M. Spero, CEO of Fusion Systems, provides an inside look at his company's long-standing patent dispute with Mitsubishi Electric Co. Spero describes the profound differences between the Japanese patent-law system and the U.S. and European systems. The Japanese system is designed to benefit large companies that can obtain technology from below and commercialize it. Its goal is to share technology, not protect it. HBS Number: 90511 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1990 Subjects: Electronics; International business; Japan; Patents    Plant Location Puzzle   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Bartmess, Andrew D. In this fictional case study, Ann Reardon, CEO of the Eldora Co. (EDC), has led her organization to become the largest and most profitable bicycle maker in the U.S. market. When her competition was moving its operations overseas becaus HBS Number: 94201 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1994 Subjects: Bicycles; HBR Case Discussions; International marketing; International operations; Location of industry; Plant location Year New: 1994    Political Advantage: Japan’s Campaign for America   Add   View  18 pp.  Article Choate, Pat Each year, Japanese companies and the Japanese government invest $400 million in a campaign to create an integrated U.S.-Japan economy that prevents the United States from confronting Japan. U.S. business leaders should regard Japan's campaign for America as a warning to recognize the importance of politics to corporate strategies and to insist on honest and ethical conduct in the global political arena. HBS Number: 90503 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1990 Subjects: Ethics; International business; International trade; Japan; Political process    Political Education of Bob Malott, CEO   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Weinberg, Martha Wagner Robert H. Malott, chairman of the board and CEO of FMC Corp., has devoted years of his own time and energy attempting to convince the federal government to pass product liability law reform. His political education so far consists of four valuable lessons: major policy change requires the involvement and commitment of top corporate executives; in politics, where power is diffuse and often invisible, getting in to see a top elected official isn't enough; rhetoric, style, and context are critical to your argument's effectiveness; there are often no visible victories. HBS Number: 88313 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1988 Subjects: Government & business; Legislation; Political process; Product liability; Product safety    Postcards from Hungary   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Von Lazar, Arpad The author deserted the army and fled Hungary in 1956. Now he returns to Budapest to visit a society set free. He describes a country hardly recognizable as the wasteland he left 34 years ago. He describes innovations in banking and marketing. Despite an ignorance of the basics of business and a deep distrust of inequality and imperialism, the Hungarians seem eager and determined to embrace capitalism and free markets. HBS Number: 90513 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1990 Subjects: Eastern Europe; Europe; Political process; Privatization; Social change    Power and Policy: The New Economic World Order   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Schwab, Klaus; Smadja, Claude The industralized world has been undergoing a crisis during the last three years--its worst since 1945. Even now, as the long-awaited recovery finally begins to gather momentum, it is failing to make itself felt in the most critical do HBS Number: 94609 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1994 Subjects: Economic development; International business; International trade; Macroeconomics Year New: 1994    Power from the Ground Up: Japan’s Land Bubble   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Cutts, Robert L. Land value inflation has become a vehicle for Japanese companies to use in pursuing global competitive objectives. Land value is whatever the Japanese decide it is, and this gives them economic power from the ground up. The convergence of three forces - Japan's lagging investment in infrastructure, its promise to its trading partners to stimulate domestic demand, and the rise in the value of the yen following the Plaza Accord of 1985 - has led to virtual government sponsorship of the Japanese land boom. Access to capital is the ultimate advantage in global competition. In part because of their land bubble, the Japanese enjoy the best and cheapest access to capital. HBS Number: 90302 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1990 Subjects: Capital investments; Competition; International business; International trade; Japan; Real estate    Power Without Purpose: The Crisis of Japan’s Global Financial Dominance   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Murphy, R. Taggart Japan is the most powerful financial force in the world. It is the wealthiest country, and because its wealth is so concentrated, it can easily move markets anywhere in the world. The failure of Continental Bank of Illinois and the October 19, 1987 stock market crash both started in Tokyo. When Great Britain and the United States were world financial leaders, each had a sense of global mission that required stability and openness in the world's financial markets. Japan has no such ideology. Indeed, Japan is unwilling to allow the yen to serve as a global reserve currency, and it does not ensure liquidity in the world's banking system. HBS Number: 89213 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1989 Subjects: International banking; International finance; Japan; Monetary policy; Political systems    Product Liability: You’re More Exposed Than You Think   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Manley, Marisa It is not possible to escape being sued for product liability. But the chances can be reduced if one understands how the law regards various circumstances. A manufacturer, for example, may never achieve zero defects. But its product's design can be examined in light of all possible uses and misuses of the product. If a customer knows a product and its characteristics, one may be able to avoid liability in litigation. But there is still the responsibility of eliminating factors likely to cause injury. HBS Number: 87509 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1987 Subjects: Corporate responsibility; Legal aspects of business; Legislation; Liability; Product design; Product introduction; Product liability; Product safety    Putting Global Logic First   Added   View  8 pp.  Article Ohmae, Kenichi The nation-state has begun to crumble. What is emerging in its place is the region-state, which is defined by economic activity, not political borders. The factors behind the shift are threefold: First, people, capital, and information HBS Number: 95109 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1995 Subjects: International business; International trade; Politics; Social change Year New: 1994    Quality Comes to City Hall   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Sensenbrenner, Joseph Shrinking revenues and taxpayer uprisings that threatened the town of Madison, Wisconsin's financial security led the author, during his six years as mayor, to introduce W. Edwards Deming's business quality concepts to city government. He learned that, like problems in business, problems in government are more likely to lie in flawed systems than in flawed workers, and that empowered frontline employees generate more improvements than management can. HBS Number: 91208 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1991 Subjects: Labor relations; Local government; Operations management; Participatory management; Quality control    Recycling for Profit: The New Green Business Frontier   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Biddle, David Although modern urban recycling programs have successfully created a tremendous supply of recycled newspapers, glass bottles, and office paper, when it comes to consumer and business demand for products made from these materials, the e HBS Number: 93601 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1993 Subjects: Environmental protection; Ethics; Government & business; Recycling; Social change; Social enterprise; Waste disposal Year New: 1993    Reinterpreting the Japanese Economic Miracle   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Crawford, Robert J. What ever happened to Japan? In the early 1990s, it lost its status as an economic juggernaut and found itself a beleaguered nation in its worst recession since World War II. Two new books help explain why the country has been struggli HBS Number: 98104 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1998 Subjects: Competition; Country analysis; Economic development; Economic planning; Government & business; Japan Year New: 1998    Reinventing the Business of Government: An Interview with Change Catalyst David Osborne   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Osborne, David Transforming inefficient bureaucracies into dynamic, customer-oriented organizations is challenging under any circumstances. It is particularly daunting when revamping an enterprise as vast and multidimensional as the federal governmen HBS Number: 94306 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1994 Subjects: Decentralization; Federal government; Restructuring; Social enterprise Year New: 1994    Rhetoric and Reality: Making Sense of the Income Gap Debate   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Levy, Frank What's the verdict on the U.S. economy's greater reliance on free markets in recent decades? The data alone won't give us easy answers. As economist Frank Levy points out, the numbers on economic well-being are so diverse that analysts HBS Number: 99505 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1999 Subjects: Business & society; Deregulation; Economic conditions; Economic policy; Government & business; Government policy; Social issues    Right Way to Go Global: An Interview with Whirlpool CEO David Whitwam   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Whitwam, David; Maruca, Regina Fazio There's a difference between being an international company--selling globally, having global brands, or having operations in different countries--and being a global enterprise. Few companies leverage their capabilities around the world to create powerful, cohesive organizations. CEO David Whitwam's vision is for Whirlpool to become an integrated, global enterprise. But a CEO can't change a company's mission and mind-set by edict alone. He or she must be able to convince employees throughout the organization that such change is not only possible, but also the best course of action. Employees must want to change their beliefs and behavior. The CEO must then create crossborder processes that force that change to occur. HBS Number: 94210 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1994 Subjects: Appliances; Corporate culture; International business; International marketing; Interviews Year New: 1994    Right Way to Restructure Conglomerates in Emerging Markets   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Khanna, Tarun; Palepu, Krishna G. Financial experts in the West suggest that diversified business groups--or affiliated companies under one parent--in emerging markets should break up. Dismantling these mammoth conglomerates could reduce the debt and inefficiencies tha HBS Number: 99407 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1999 Subjects: China; Conglomerates; Developing countries; Emerging markets; Government & business; India; Korea; Restructuring; South America Year New: 1999    Russian Investment Dilemma   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Kvint, Vladimir Vladimir Kvint advises Americans to invest early and move quickly as they develop joint ventures in Russia. He argues that, despite economic hardships, the climate for international joint ventures there has never been better. Noting that Americans seem deterred because most Russian joint ventures never get off the ground, he contends that those failures stem less from business conditions in Russia than from poor planning on the part of foreign investors. And, he says, potential investors can learn from their predecessors mistakes. Should we give up on Russia or not? In this issue's Perspectives section, seven experts debate the question. HBS Number: 94307 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1994 Subjects: Country analysis; Foreign investment; International business; International finance; Joint ventures; Russia Year New: 1994    Russian Raw Materials: Converting Threat into Opportunity   Add   View  12 pp.  Article McDonald, Kevin R. Many Western business people believe that the companies now being formed in the former Soviet Union won't compete in the West for another 15 to 20 years. But in the raw-materials sector, a competitive threat exists today partly because the economies of the NIS are in such disarray. As a result of huge structural changes such as the radical shrinkage of the Soviet defense industry, vast quantities of nickel, zinc, aluminum, magnesium, potash, and other critical materials are now being sold in the West at fire-sale prices. One company, Reynolds Metals Corp., has decided to establish itself in the NIS as a maker of aluminum consumer goods for NIS markets. It is attempting to divert the flow of aluminum to the West by rebuilding domestic NIS demand--without reestablishing the gigantic Russian defense industries that were previously the main customers. HBS Number: 94304 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1994 Subjects: Aluminum; Aluminum industry; Country analysis; Russia Year New: 1994    Sense and Nonsense About Budget Deficits   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Eisner, Robert Almost everbody is against federal budget deficits. And almost no one knows what he or she is talking about. The author contends that deficits can be good for us as well as bad, too small as well as too large. The key is knowing how to HBS Number: 93303 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1993 Subjects: Debt management; Economic policy; Federal government; Macroeconomics; Unemployment Year New: 1993    Services Under Siege - the Restructuring Imperative   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Roach, Stephen S. Until recently, U.S. service companies have been shielded by regulation and confronted by few foreign competitors. As a result, they have allowed their white-collar payrolls to become bloated, their investment in information technology to outstrip the paybacks, and their productivity to stagnate. Now deregulation and foreign direct investment are exposing these vulnerabilities. To survive the service shakeout, companies must refrain from indiscriminate cost cutting and balance financial discipline with a comprehensive and immediate reexamination of strategy. HBS Number: 91510 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1991 Subjects: Competition; Corporate strategy; Deregulation; Foreign investment; Industry analysis; International business; Restructuring; Services    Short-Term Results: The Litmus Test for Success in China   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Yan, Rick According to author Rick Yan, a vice president in the Beijing office of Bain & Company, making money in the China market in the short run is the best indicator we have that a company?s current strategy and practices are well suited to HBS Number: 98511 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1998 Subjects: China; Corporate strategy; Emerging markets; International business; Multinational corporations; Strategic market planning; Strategic planning    Silent Language in Overseas Business   Add   View  11 pp.  Article Hall, Edward T. Variables in foreign behavior and national customs complicate American companies' efforts to conduct international business. A U.S. executive's ignorance of the peculiarities of the languages of time, space, things, friendships, and agreements, may find that this lack of knowledge adversely affects business deals. Written agreements have different meanings resulting in various levels of obligation. U.S. executives must learn the rules for contract negotiations in each country. HBS Number: 60308 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1960 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; International business; International trade    Silicon Island of the East: Creating a Semiconductor Industry in Singapore   Add   View  25 pp.  Article Author(s): Mathews, John A. Publication Date: 01/01/1999 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review HBS Number: CMR142 Geographic Setting: Southeast Asia Industry Setting: Semiconductor industry Subjects: Business government relations; Industry structure Academic Discipline: Business & government Product Description: A remarkable semiconductor industry has been created in Singapore, through highly focused public policy directed towards attracting multinational corporations and leveraging skills and technology from them to spark local industry development. This article assesses the effectiveness of this strategy — examining the viability and sustainability of the industry it created — as well as its replicability. If other countries such as China are to emulate Singapore's approach, they will have to develop an institutional framework with the capability to direct the processes of technology leverage and diffusion.    Silicon Valley of the East: Creating Taiwan’s Semiconductor Industry   Add   View  30 pp.  Article Author(s): Mathews, John A. Publication Date: 07/01/1997 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review Product Description: A thriving semiconductor industry has been created in Taiwan over the course of the past two decades by the use of advanced organizational techniques of technology leverage and accelerated technology diffusion. By the mid-1990s, the industry had reached a level of output that placed it behind only the United States, Japan, and Korea. Almost all of Taiwan's semiconductor industry is located in the Hsinchu Science-Based Industry Park, which was created in emulation of California's Stanford Research Park, but with more direct government involvement. This article explores the extent to which this emergent Silicon Valley in Taiwan shares the ``industrial ecology'' that has powered innovation in California and examines the extent to which the Taiwan industry suffers from weaknesses attributed to its rapid creation through technology leverage. HBS Number: CMR087 Subjects: Industrial development; Industry structure; Research & development; Semiconductors; Silicon Valley; Southeast Asia Academic Discipline: Business & government    Simple Truths of Japanese Manufacturing   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Weiss, Andrew A comparison of the performance of workers at Western Electric in the United States with that of employees at five of the largest Japanese electronics manufacturers, Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Hitachi, Fujitsu, Nippon Electric Co., and Mitsubishi Electric, shows that cultural differences do not explain the superior productivity of Japanese workers. Rather, superior productivity in Japan depends on management practices and investment patterns. HBS Number: 84414 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1984 Subjects: Electronics; Japan; Managerial skills; Manufacturing strategy; Personnel management; Productivity    Social Cost/Benefit Analysis for MNCs   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Wells, Louis T., Jr. Foreign countries use social return analysis because traditional market price evaluations do not apply to developing countries. Weak competition and government intervention send out incorrect price signals that will not predict adverse effects. Social cost/benefit analysis attempts to adjust to the separate prices of project outputs and inputs in an effort to set prices correctly. Social evaluation determines how efficiently projects use domestic resources, but does not evaluate the dynamic effects of a project or its political implications. HBS Number: 75211 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1975 Subjects: Cost benefit analysis; Country analysis; Developing countries; Foreign investment; International business    Standard or Smokescreen?: Implementation of a Voluntary Environmental Code   Add   View  21 pp.  Article Author(s): Howard, Jennifer; Nash, Jennifer; Ehrenfeld, John Publication Date: 01/01/2000 Product Type: CMR Article Publisher: California Management Review Product Description: In recent years, demands from external stakeholders have created pressures for companies to adopt new environmental management practices. Some industries have developed their own non-regulatory codes of environment, health, and safety (EHS) practice. Have these codes generated substantive change in members' actions, or do they simply reinforce existing perceptions and practices? This article examines the response of sixteen chemical companies to the first industry-generated EHS code, Responsible Care. In some cases, companies have adopted uniform practices, while in other cases significant variation persists. The adoption and implementation by companies of non-regulatory environmental codes is a poor indicator that any particular standard practices will be followed. HBS Number: CMR167 Subjects: Chemical industry; Environmental protection; Environmental regulations; Regulated industries Academic Discipline: Business & government    Starting Over: Poland After Communism   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Johnson, Simon; Loveman, Gary In January 1990, with inflation at 50%, the newly democratic Polish government introduced a draconian plan for a market economy. Most observers expected the Balcerowicz Plan, sometimes referred to as shock therapy, to spur reform throu HBS Number: 95203 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1995 Subjects: Country analysis; Eastern Europe; Entrepreneurship; Privatization; Social change Year New: 1995    Swapping Business Skills for Oil   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Tahija, Julius According to Julius Tahija, former managing director of Caltex Pacific Indonesia, meeting social responsibilities is an indispensable part of doing business in the developing world. Transnationals need skilled labor, consumer markets, financial and commercial partners, and continuing business opportunities. Developing nations need all the social and economic competencies that transnationals can provide, teach, and encourage by paying greater attention to the way they conduct business. Of all the contributions a company can make to a developing country, the transfer of crucial business competencies is the most significant. There are five broad categories of competency transfer: fostering local businesses, improving infrastructure, protecting the environment, developing human resources, and promoting an ethical business culture. HBS Number: 93511 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1993 Subjects: Australia; Community relations; Developing countries; Economic development; Employee training; Environmental protection; Ethics Year New: 1993    Tailored Trade: Dealing with the World as It Is   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Choate, Pat; Linger, Juyne U.S. trade policy is mired in obsolete assumptions about the practices and principles of global economics. It is stuck in a time when the United States could assume sole responsibility for the world trading order. Business and government leaders must acknowledge that there are five different economic systems operating in the world today--centrally planned, mixed, developing, plan-driven, and rule-driven--only one of which corresponds to the traditional U.S. model. The United States needs to embrace "tailored trade"--negotiating with different countries differently, according to their economic systems. The result would be a more practical and flexible approach to trade--one that would not only serve U.S. interests but also correspond to the world as it really is. HBS Number: 88103 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1988 Subjects: Foreign policy; Government policy; International business; International trade; Regulation    Third-World Families at Work: Child Labor or Child Care?   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Nichols, Martha The new vice president of international contracts for Timothy & Thomas North America, Jonathan Stein, faces tough decisions regarding the company's Pakistani contractors. In a plant in Lahore, Stein sees girls who look no older than ten, sweeping the floor. T&T shorts are currently the hottest item in Timothy & Thomas's line of casual clothes. Like the rest of the company's products, the shorts have a wholesome American image. But that image doesn't fit the image of those girls at work - or Timothy & Thomas's reputation for social responsibility. In fact, the company's new Global Guidelines for Business Partners prohibit the use of child labor. The complicated situation puts Jonathan Stein on the cutting-edge of company policy. Six experts on global sourcing and labor in developing nations discuss the agonizing decisions that confront Stein and his company. HBS Number: 93105 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1993 Subjects: Clothing; Developing countries; Ethics; HBR Case Discussions; Human resources management; International operations; Work force management Year New: 1993    Thriving Locally in the Global Economy   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Kanter, Rosabeth Moss In the future, success will come to those companies that can meet global standards and tap into global networks. More and more small and midsize companies are joining corporate giants in striving to exploit international growth markets. At the same time, civic leaders worry about their communities' economic future in light of the impact of global forces on the operation of businesses. How can communities retain local vitality yet still link the businesses located within them to the global economy? Rosabeth Moss Kanter surveyed five U.S. regions that connect with the global economy to determine their business and civic leaders' strategies for improving their constituents' quality of life. She has identified ways in which the global economy can work locally by capitalizing on the resources that distinguish one place from another. HBS Number: 95504 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1995 Subjects: Business policy; Community relations; Industrial development; International business; International marketing; Local government; Social enterprise Year New: 1995    To Reach China’s Consumers, Adapt to Guo Qing   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Yan, Rick With one-quarter of the world's population, and consumer spending increasing by as much as 10% annually, China offers an opportunity that marketers of branded goods can't ignore. Foreign companies seeking to win a piece of this growing HBS Number: 94511 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1994 Subjects: China; Cross cultural relations; International business; International marketing Year New: 1994    Toward an Apartheid Economy?   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Freeman, Richard B. From all points on the political map come the message that something is wrong with the U.S. economy. Indeed, income inequality has jumped in the past two decades in almost every category: college graduates have gained in comparison with high school graduates, older workers in comparison with younger ones, professionals in comparison with laborers. The list goes on. Economist Richard Freeman fears that the United States may be developing an apartheid economy, one in which the well-off are blind to the concerns of the poor. The debate is joined by five leaders from a variety of fields. HBS Number: 96503 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1996 Subjects: Business & society; Economic policy; Government & business; Job satisfaction; Labor relations; Public policy Year New: 1996    Toxic Reckoning: Business Faces a New Kind of Fear   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Erikson, Kai Roughly 3,500 people were advised to relocate after the Three Mile Island emergency. Instead, some 200,000 fled. This response illustrates a growing fear of toxic disaster. People find radiation and toxic substances more threatening than most natural hazards and nontoxic technological hazards. And because toxics are the product of human hands, their release seems a betrayal. Experts say that over time, people will accept toxic dangers. Managers should educate the public about toxic dangers as well as commiserate with its fears. This will prevent lawsuits and the growth of an antitechnology political movement. HBS Number: 90105 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1990 Subjects: Corporate strategy; Environmental protection; Pollution control    Transcending Business Boundaries: 12,000 World Managers View Change   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Kanter, Rosabeth Moss The results of the HBR World Leadership Survey found that change is indeed everywhere--regardless of country, culture, or corporation. But the idea of a corporate global village where a common culture of management unifies the practice of business around the world is more dream than reality. In addition to profiling the views of the average manager, the survey detected the deep and powerful national differences that overwhelm age, sex, or industry distinctions among respondents. HBS Number: 91308 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1991 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; International business; Management of change; Management philosophy; Organizational change; Polls & surveys; Social change    Traveler’s Guide to Gifts and Bribes   Added   View  10 pp.  Article Fadiman, Jeffrey A. When abroad, managers often don't know what to do about "requests" for funds or gifts. Walking out on the deal could ruin business relations. Paying up may mean violating the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act as well as personal moral standards. Understanding the importance of gifts in some societies may help U.S. executives find ways to satisfy both the foreign request and U.S. standards. They can, for example, make an equivalent, public donation to a social project in the requester's country; offer services to local causes in lieu of private payments; offer to create local jobs. HBS Number: 86401 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1986 Subjects: Cross cultural relations; Developing countries; Ethics; International business; International trade    Troubles Ahead in Emerging Markets   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Garten, Jeffrey E. Throughout the 1990s, financial investors, corporate strategists, and political leaders in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan have been intensifying their focus on emerging markets. And, indeed, emerging markets are the new frontier. But like all frontiers, warns Jeffrey E. Garten, dean of the Yale School of Management, such markets present a mix of opportunity and risk. The question now is whether businesses and governments in the industrialized world are sober enough about the problems that lie ahead. There is considerable evidence to show that the tides of capitalism that rose so powerfully after the collapse of the former Soviet Union are now poised to recede. What can business and government do to improve the economic environment abroad? HBS Number: 97302 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1997 Subjects: Developing countries; Economic development; Foreign policy; Government & business; International business; International trade; Political risk    U.S. Industrial Policy: Inevitable and Ineffective   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Phillips, Kevin P. No matter how sharp the disagreements of the 1992 presidential election campaign nor who wins the election, one outcome is certain: in the next administration, the United States will have an industrial policy. Unfortunately, this national industrial policy will be vague, confusing, highly politicized--and frequently ineffective. It will be government intervention driven by special interests rather than by strategic intent. Managers may be better off learning how to live with a haphazard industrial policy in the end--minimizing the negative impacts of such a policy on their own companies and industries. HBS Number: 92409 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1992 Subjects: Government policy; Interest groups; Politics; Regulated industries Year New: 1992    Volatile Exchange Rates Can Put Operations at Risk   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Lessard, Donald R.; Lightstone, John B. Factors like foreign and domestic market structure determine a company's operating exposure to exchange rates. But sophisticated managers have learned to manage foreign-exchange exposure in new ways. For example, companies can approach production units not as fixed, but as flexible, facilities whose importance to the corporation can be adjusted when exchange rates shift. The company can also shift sources of raw materials, subassemblies, and components. Above all, managers are more likely to adopt appropriate courses of action if their performance measurement takes into account the effect of exchange rate changes on operating performance. HBS Number: 86405 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1986 Subjects: Foreign exchange; Foreign exchange rates; International business; International operations    Wa, Guanxi, and Inhwa: Managerial Principles in Japan, China, and Korea   Add   View  6 pp.  Article Author(s): Alston, John P. Publication Date: 03/15/1989 Product Type: Business Horizons Article Publisher: Business Horizons/Indiana University Product Description: Western observers of global business, impressed with how much Asian cultures differ from those of North America and Europe, tend to think of Japan, China, and Korea as practicing much the same forms of business relationships. But although East Asian cultures have in common an emphasis on personal relationships as the foundation of business practices, the forms and values of these relationships differ markedly among the Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans. For the Japanese, the important concept is wa, or the emphasis on group loyalty, harmony, and consensus; emotional support and a long-term perspective are important. The Chinese, on the other hand, think in terms of guanxi, the special arrangements of favor-sharing that an individual has with other individuals; personal loyalties within such arrangements are more important than loyalty to an organization. Koreans emphasize inhwa, which relates to harmony between unequals and derives from the Confucian ideal of loyalty to parents, elders, and authority figures. Non-Asians hoping to do business effectively in East Asia need to understand how these concepts all translate into quite different norms of business practice. HBS Number: BH015 Geographic Setting: Asia; China; Japan Subjects: Business etiquette; Cross cultural relations; Developing countries; Foreign investment; International business Academic Discipline: Business & government    Way to Win in Cross-Border Alliances   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Bleeke, Joel A.; Ernst, David War stories about failed alliances make executives wary of forging new joint ventures. However, the strategic benefits of cross-border alliances are compelling. A study of 49 cross-border alliances found several patterns that have managerial implications. For example, alliances must be free to evolve as the environment changes and opportunities arise. Contrary to conventional wisdom, fifty-fifty ownership of joint ventures improves decision making, and most alliances end with one parent acquiring the venture. HBS Number: 91602 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1991 Subjects: Corporate strategy; International business; Joint ventures; Partnerships    What Businessmen Need to Know About the Student Left   Add   View  14 pp.  Article Author(s): Bradley, Gene E. Publication Date: 09/01/1968 Product Type: Harvard Business Review Article Product Description: The “New Left” is a relatively small but hard core of young student revolutionaries aiming at nothing less than the destruction of U.S. society in general and the Business Establishment in particular. What is the philosophy of the New Left? Where are its blind spots? How should businessmen respond to it? The author urges readers to speak with students outside the inner hard core of radicals, to promote Job Corps Centers, and to improve the quality of life in organizations and society. HBS Number: 68503 Subjects: Corporate responsibility; McKinsey Award winners; Political systems; Social change Academic Discipline: Business & government    What Every Executive Needs to Know About Global Warming   Add   View  16 pp.  Article Author(s): Packard, Kimberly O'Neill; Reinhardt, Forest Publication Date: 07/01/2000 Product Type: Harvard Business Review Article HBS Number: R00409 Subjects: Business & society; Business government relations; Energy consumption; Environmental protection; Globalization; Risk assessment; Risk management Academic Discipline: Business & government Product Description: Thanks to the development of the Kyoto Protocol — an international plan to limit carbon dioxide and other so-called greenhouse gases in the atmosphere — global warming is beginning to assume a prominent position on the agendas of business executives. Although weather patterns aren't going to change overnight, new regulations designed to curb climate change may themselves disrupt the flow of business. Faced with such a complex problem, however, many executives have wondered where to begin. A sensible way to start is by taking a close look at the risks — and the inevitable opportunities — associated with shifts in the weather, potential regulatory changes, and the battle over public opinion. Forward-looking companies in a range of industries, from energy to insurance to automobiles, are already seeking ways to mitigate the effects of the weather on their operations, shape any regulatory regime that governments may devise, and inform the public about their efforts to reduce the problems associated with climate change. Companies that calculate the risks and opportunities effectively — as they would for any other part of the business — will be able to make wise investments that allow them to survive the coming storms.    What Is a Global Manager?   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Bartlett, Christopher A.; Ghoshal, Sumantra To compete successfully, a transnational company needs three strategic capabilities: global-scale efficiency, local responsiveness, and the ability to leverage learning worldwide. No single "global" manager can build these capabilities. They can be built only by groups of specialized managers able to integrate assets, resources, and people in operating units throughout the world. Such managers are made, not born. And how to make them is now the foremost question in many senior managers' minds. There are three distinct types of global managers: business managers, country managers, and functional managers. The authors illustrate the skills each managerial specialist requires through a close look at the successful careers of Leif Johansson of Electrolux, Howard Gottlieb of NEC, and Wahib Zaki of Procter & Gamble. HBS Number: 92502 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 9/1/1992 Subjects: International business; International marketing; International operations; Managerial skills; Multinational corporations Year New: 1992    What Makes a Company Global?   Added   View  8 pp.  Article Kogut, Bruce The current worldwide economic crisis illustrates how global the economy has become. But are global markets creating globally minded companies? Bruce Kogut, a professor of management at the Wharton School of Business, answers this ques HBS Number: 99106 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1999 Subjects: Alliances; Business reading; Corporate governance; Country analysis; Foreign investment; Germany; Globalization; Government & business; International business; International operations; Japan; National competitiveness; R&D Year New: 1999    What We Don’t Know About Soviet Management   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Vlachoutsicos, Charalambos; Lawrence, Paul R. The biggest impediment to successful joint ventures with the Soviet Union is Western ignorance of the Soviet management system. The core of Soviet hierarchy -- the structural task unit (STU) -- explains the interaction between Soviet management and workers. The largest STU is the enterprise itself; the smallest is the work brigade. This system produces excellent vertical integration, but its inner solidarity tends to inhibit horizontal communication. HBS Number: 90611 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 11/1/1990 Subjects: International business; Joint ventures; Organizational structure; USSR    When the United States was Canada’s "Japan"   Add   View  5 pp.  Article Rotstein, Abraham Buying into America, by Martin and Susan Tolchin, and Yen!, by Daniel Burstein, look at the data on foreign direct investment and sound the alarm. The authors propose that the United States adopt new economic policies to assure that the economy benefits from the growing role the Japanese play in manufacturing, banking, and real estate. The authors' urgent tone recalls the period when the United States was Canada's "Japan": foreign investors bought up three fifths of Canada's manufacturing industry; 80% of the foreign-owned sector was in U.S. hands. HBS Number: 89109 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1989 Subjects: Economic policy; Foreign investment; International business    Who Is Them?   Add   View  11 pp.  Article Reich, Robert B. Global negotiations are increasingly between the people of the United States and global managers, rather than between American companies and foreign nations. These global managers are supranational corporate players who have no particular allegiance to any one nation. The United States is disadvantaged in negotiations because states and cities bid against each other, permitting global managers to play us off against ourselves. To remedy the situation, Reich suggests the creation of a U.S. Investment Representative and a GATT for Direct Investment. HBS Number: 91206 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1991 Subjects: Foreign investment; Government agencies; Government policy; International business; International trade    Who Is Us?   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Reich, Robert B. Because of globalization, the U.S.-owned corporation headquartered in the United States is no longer the vehicle for achieving U.S. competitiveness. Foreign-owned corporations that invest heavily in U.S.-based production facilities and their workers may actually contribute more. U.S. government policy should open the borders to foreign investment and promote human capital rather than assuming that corporations will lead the way. This is true for a number of reasons: corporate ownership is less important today; control is less important; work force skills are critical; and foreign-owned corporations help U.S. workers add value. HBS Number: 90111 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1990 Subjects: Competition; Corporate strategy; Economic policy; Government policy; International business; Multinational corporations; National competitiveness    Who Says You Can’t Crack Japanese Markets?   Add   View  6 pp.  Article Alden, Vernon R. Many U.S. companies have written off the Japanese market, believing that Japan's distribution system is impenetrable or that the Japanese buy only Japanese products. U.S. companies are represented in more than 85% of Japanese industrial sectors, however, and at least 12 hold the number one market position. These companies have been both creative and tenacious in obtaining this position. Their experience teaches some important lessons. HBS Number: 87101 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1987 Subjects: Exports; International business; International marketing; International trade; Japan    Why Focused Strategies May Be Wrong for Emerging Markets   Add   View  12 pp.  Article Khanna, Tarun; Palepu, Krishna G. Core competencies and focus are now the mantras of corporate strategists in Western economies. But while managers in the West have dismantled many conglomerates assembled in the 1960s and 1970s, the large, diversified business group remains the dominant form of enterprise throughout many emerging markets. As those markets open up to global competition, consultants and foreign investors are increasingly pressuring groups to conform to Western practice by scaling back the scope of their business activities. Already a number of executives have decided to break up their groups in order to show that they are focusing on only a few core businesses. There are reasons to worry about this trend, say the authors. Focus is good advice in New York or London, but something important gets lost in translation when that advice is given to groups in emerging markets. HBS Number: 97404 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 7/1/1997 Subjects: Corporate strategy; Country analysis; Developing countries; Diversification; Economic development; Government & business Year New: 1997    Why Privatization Is Not Enough   Add   View  8 pp.  Article McDonald, Kevin R. In the West, we believe that privatizing an Eastern European enterprise will invariably improve governance, management, and performance. But the positive effects of privatization are far from automatic. In fact, most newly privatized companies need dominant, experienced Western shareholders to compensate for the weaknesses of communist-educated managers. Whereas privatization with a strong shareholder can work miracles, privatizations without one rarely do well for long. Because owners must educate, motivate, or replace incumbent managers, ownership is critical. Privatization is a means to an end, not always an end in itself. HBS Number: 93308 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1993 Subjects: Corporate governance; Eastern Europe; Foreign investment; Government & business; Joint ventures; Privatization Year New: 1993    Why Protectionism Doesn’t Pay   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Lawrence, Robert Z.; Litan, Robert E. Two arguments against low trade barriers - that U.S. manufacturing is bound to lose out to places like Korea and Taiwan because they pay rock-bottom wages, and to Japan and other aggressive foreign competitors because they help favored industries with subsidies - don't stand up to the facts. The United States imports less from low-wage countries now than it did in 1960; protection levels haven't changed much since 1981, the year the United States last had a surplus in manufactured goods. What is at the bottom of our massive trade deficit? The huge gap between our production and our spending, fueled largely by the enormous federal budget deficit. HBS Number: 87305 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/1987 Subjects: Economic policy; Foreign exchange; International trade    Why the U.S. Needs an Industrial Policy   Add   View  9 pp.  Article Reich, Robert B. There are two general approaches to improving the U.S.'s industrial competitiveness: supply-side economics and industrial policy. Supply-side economics calls for government measures that raise the level of investment, reduce the level of consumption, and thus create new capital. Industrial policy is concerned with developing those industries that promise to be strong internationally and with easing the dislocations of the work force. Developing a coherent U.S. industrial policy is essential but politically difficult because there is no institutional structure through which to achieve the necessary broad consensus. HBS Number: 82108 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 1/1/1982 Subjects: Economic policy; Federal government; Government policy; National competitiveness    Will E-Commerce Erode Liberty?   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Shapiro, Carl The e-commerce explosion is turning the Internet, once a freewheeling medium of individual expression, into a sphere of intense corporate activity. Companies are shaping cyberspace to make electronic transactions more secure and consum HBS Number: R00310 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 5/1/2000 Subjects: Business & society; Electronic commerce; Intellectual property; Internet; Legal aspects of business; Politics; Right of privacy; Technological change    Work and Unity: Germany the Morning After   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Von Lazar, Arpad Touring through the newly united Germany, the author discovers a nation of people determined to rebuild the Eastern economy and make Germany the most dynamic and prosperous nation in Europe. Through discussion with Germans of various backgrounds, the problems and challenges facing the new Germany are revealed: weeding out the former East German secrete police, deporting foreign guest workers to open jobs for East Germans, and breaking down the social barriers between Germans from opposite sides of the Wall. HBS Number: 91211 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1991 Subjects: Country analysis; Economic development; Germany; International business; Social change    Worldwide Web of Chinese Business   Add   View  10 pp.  Article Kao, John J. For generations, emigrant Chinese entrepreneurs have operated in a network of family and clan across many national borders. Chinese businesses in the Pacific Rim and beyond make up the world's fourth economic power. The author calls this global network of entrepreneurial relationships the Chinese commonwealth. The author details the Confucian tradition and the values that have hindered so many Chinese businesses in the recent past, including Wang Laboratories. The sudden wealth of expatriate Chinese communities and the new possibilities for business still come down to a patchwork of many small enterprises that often have no respect for one another. But a new ideology of economic self-interest that transcends politics and the constraints on traditional Chinese business may lead to even greater integration of the commonwealth. HBS Number: 93206 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1993 Subjects: China; Cross cultural relations; Entrepreneurship; International business; International finance; Southeast Asia Year New: 1993    Yen to Spend   Add   View  8 pp.  Article Keehn, E. Barry Much has been made of what American business can learn from Japan's manufacturing practices, but its service sector also has lessons to teach. E. Barry Keehn reviews two recent books showing how the Tsutsumi family defined consumerism in Japan: The Brothers: The Hidden World of Japan's Richest Family, by Lesley Downer, and Architects of Affluence: The Tsutsumi Family and the Seibu-Saison Enerprises in Twentieth-Century Japan, by Thomas R.H. Havens. HBS Number: 96208 Type: Harvard Business Review Article Publication Date: 3/1/1996 Subjects: Japan; Retailing; Services; Vertical integration Year New: 1996

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